1899 Solid Silver Crown Coin Antique Vintage Old Queen Victoria Netflix TV Show • £129.99 (2025)

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Seller: lasvegasormonaco ✉️ (4,738) 99.6%, Location: Manchester, Take a look at my other items, GB, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 267178338112 1899 Solid Silver Crown Coin Antique Vintage Old Queen Victoria Netflix TV Show. The crown was first issued during the reign of Edward VI, as part of the coinage of the Kingdom of England. The Kingdom of England also minted gold Crowns until early in the reign of Charles II. [2] The dies for all gold and silver coins of Queen Anne and King George I were engraved by John Croker, a migrant originally from Dresden in the Duchy of Saxony. Queen Victoria 1899 Solid Silver Crown This is a 1899 0.925 Silver Crown. The Victoria Old Head obverse design was adopted from 1893 for silver and gold coins, and from 1895 for bronze coins, and was continued until Victoria's death in 1901. It was the third major portrait type of Victoria's reign. Called by some the widow head, this is not particularly accurate as Prince Albert had died in 1861, and the old head was not used until 1893. The obverse, with the reverse design depicting the famed St George, the paton saint of England and the Dragon by Benedetto Pistrucci. This vintage 1890 Victoria Crown is a valuable addition to any coin collection. Made of solid 0.925 silver, this antique coin features a stunning design that showcases the era of Queen Victoria's reign. The intricate details on the coin speaks to the craftsmanship of the United Kingdom during this time period. The denomination of this coin is a Crown and it was minted in Great Britain. The fineness of the silver used is 0.925, which ensures the durability of the coin. With its sterling proof quality, this vintage piece is a true testament to the rich history and culture of Great Britain. Discover a piece of British history with this 1899 Solid Silver Crown Coin, honouring Queen Victoria, a revered figure in UK Royalty. This vintage coin is a tangible connection to the past, minted during the reign of the monarch who reigned from 1837 to 1901. Its antique appeal is undeniable, making it a must-have for collectors and history enthusiasts alike. Struck by the British Royal Mint, this coin is a testament to the craftsmanship of the era and the rich heritage of Great Britain. Not signed, it remains an authentic artefact that commemorates the legacy of Queen Victoria, providing a sense of majesty and a bygone era charm to any collection. The 1899 'LXII' United Kingdom crown reverse depicts Saint George, the patron saint of England, on horseback, slaying the dragon. The date is in the exergue below the groundlin The regnal year is in the raised edge lettering: 'DECUS ET TUTAMEN ANNO REGNI LXII' Queen Victoria facing left, adorned with jewellery and wearing a tiara beneath a veil (veiled head). The legend reads: 'VICTORIA DEI GRA BRITT REGINA FID DEF IND IMP'. Regnal year 'LXII' in raised edge lettering. Larger border denticals, closer to legend = Monarch Queen Victoria Edge lettered - raised Weight 28.35 grams Diameter 38.6 mm Comp 92.5% silver Minted London, England Mintage approx. 166,300 (inc varieties) Scarcity less common for period Obverse Thomas Brock Reverse Bennedetto Pistrucci A wonderful item for anyone who loves the Royal Family It would be a super addition to any collection, excellent display, practical piece or authentic period prop. This once belonged to my Grand Mother and she kept in a display cabinet for many years, but when she died it was placed in a box for storage. "e have decided to sell some of her items to raise money for a Memorial Bench with a plaque Where we can sit and remember her on Summer Days I hope it will find a good home In Very good condition for over 125 Years Old Comes from a pet and smoke free home Sorry about the poor quality photos. They don't do the plate justice which looks a lot better in real life I have a lot of Historical Memorabilia on Ebay so Check out my other items ! Bid with Confidence - Check My Almost 100% Positive Feedback from over 20,000 Satisfied Sorry about the poor quality photos. They don't do the plate justice which looks a lot better in real life All my Auctions Bidding starts a a penny with no reserve... if your the only bidder you win it for 1p...Grab a Bargain! Click Here to Check out my Other Antique Items & Coins Bid with Confidence - Check My 100% Positive Feedback from over 4,000 Satisfied Customers I have over 10 years of Ebay Selling Experience - So Why Not Treat Yourself? I have got married recently and need to raise funds to meet the costs also we are planning to move into a house together I always combined postage on multiple items Instant Feedback Automatically Left Immediately after Receiving Payment All Items Sent out within 24 hours of Receiving Payment. Overseas Bidders Please Note Surface Mail Delivery Times > Western Europe takes up to 2 weeks, Eastern Europe up to 5 weeks, North America up to 6 weeks, South America, Africa and Asia up to 8 weeks and Australasia up to 12 weeks Thanks for Looking and Best of Luck with the Bidding!! Also if bidding from overseas and you want your item tracked please select the International Signed for Postage Option For that Interesting Conversational Piece, A Birthday Present, Christmas Gift, A Comical Item to Cheer Someone Up or That Unique Perfect Gift for the Person Who has Everything....You Know Where to Look for a Bargain! 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City, Madrid, Tianjin, Kuala Lumpur, Toronto, Milan, Shenyang, Dallas, Fort Worth, Boston, Belo Horizonte, Khartoum, Riyadh, Singapore, Washington, Detroit, Barcelona,, Houston, Athens, Berlin, Sydney, Atlanta, Guadalajara, San Francisco, Oakland, Montreal, Monterey, Melbourne, Ankara, Recife, Phoenix/Mesa, Durban, Porto Alegre, Dalian, Jeddah, Seattle, Cape Town, San Diego, Fortaleza, Curitiba, Rome, Naples, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Tel Aviv, Birmingham, Frankfurt, Lisbon, Manchester, San Juan, Katowice, Tashkent, Fukuoka, Baku, Sumqayit, St. Louis, Baltimore, Sapporo, Tampa, St. Petersburg, Taichung, Warsaw, Denver, Cologne, Bonn, Hamburg, Dubai, Pretoria, Vancouver, Beirut, Budapest, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Campinas, Harare, Brasilia, Kuwait, Munich, Portland, Brussels, Vienna, San Jose, Damman , Copenhagen, Brisbane, Riverside, San Bernardino, Cincinnati and Accra Crown (British coin) One crown Great Britain United Kingdom Value 5/— (25p in decimal currency) £5 (commemorative coins from 1990 and later) Diameter 38 mm Edge Milled Composition (1816–1919) 92.5% Ag (1920–1946) 50% Ag (1947–1970) Cupronickel Years of minting 1707–1981 Obverse Obverse of the crown of 1891, Great Britain, Victoria.jpg Design Profile of the monarch (Victoria "jubilee head" design shown) Designer Joseph Boehm Design date 1887 Reverse Reverse crown 1891, Great Britain, Victoria.jpg Design Various (St George design shown) Designer Benedetto Pistrucci Design date 1817 The British crown was a denomination of sterling coinage worth 1 / 4 of one pound, or 5 shillings, or 60 (old) pence. The crown was first issued during the reign of Edward VI, as part of the coinage of the Kingdom of England. Always a heavy silver coin weighing around one ounce, during the 19th and 20th centuries the crown declined from being a real means of exchange to being a coin rarely spent, and minted for commemorative purposes only. Unlike in some territories of the British Empire (such as Jamaica), in the UK the crown was never replaced as circulating currency by a five-shilling banknote. "Decimal" crowns were minted a few times after decimalisation of the British currency in 1971, initially with a nominal value of 25 (new) pence. However, commemorative crowns issued since 1990 have a face value of five pounds.[1] History The coin's origins lie in the English silver crown, one of many silver coins that appeared in various countries from the 16th century onwards (most famously the Spanish piece of eight), all of similar size and weight (approx 38mm diameter, 25g fine silver) and thus interchangeable in international trade. The Kingdom of England also minted gold Crowns until early in the reign of Charles II.[2] The dies for all gold and silver coins of Queen Anne and King George I were engraved by John Croker, a migrant originally from Dresden in the Duchy of Saxony.[3] The British silver crown was always a large coin, and from the 19th century it did not circulate well. However, crowns were usually struck in a new monarch's coronation year, from George IV through Elizabeth II in 1953, with the exceptions of George V and Edward VIII. "Gothic" crown of Queen Victoria (1847). The coin had a mintage of just 8,000 and was produced to celebrate the Gothic revival The King George V "wreath" crowns struck from 1927 through 1936 (excluding 1935 when the more common "rocking horse" crown was minted to commemorate the King's Silver Jubilee) depict a wreath on the reverse of the coin and were struck in very low numbers. Generally struck late in the year and intended to be purchased as Christmas gifts, they were generally kept rather than circulated. The 1927 "wreath" crowns were struck as proofs only (15,030 minted) and the 1934 coin had a mintage of just 932.[citation needed] With their large size, many of the later coins were primarily commemoratives. The 1951 issue was for the Festival of Britain, and was only struck in proof condition. The 1953 crown was issued to celebrate the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, while the 1960 issue (which carried the same reverse design as the previous crown in 1953) commemorated the British Exhibition in New York. The 1965 issue carried the image of Winston Churchill on the reverse. According to the Standard Catalogue of coins, 19,640,000 of this coin were minted, although intended as collectable pieces the large mintage and lack of precious metal content means these coins are effectively worthless today.[4] Production of the Churchill crown began on 11 October 1965, and stopped in the summer of 1966. The crown coin was nicknamed the dollar, but is not to be confused with the British trade dollar that circulated in the Orient. In 2014, a new world record price was achieved for a milled silver crown. The coin was unique, issued as a pattern by engraver Thomas Simon in 1663 and nicknamed the "Reddite Crown". It was presented to Charles II as the new crown piece, but ultimately rejected in favour of the Roettiers Brothers' design. Auctioneers Spink & Son of London sold the coin on 27 March 2014 for £396,000 including commission.[5] All pre-decimal crowns from 1818 on remain legal tender with a face value of 25p.[6] Decimal crowns Main articles: British twenty-five pence coin and Five pounds (British coin) After decimalisation on 15 February 1971, the 25-pence coin was introduced as a replacement for the crown as a commemorative coin. These were legal tender[6] and were made with large mintages. Further issues continued to be minted, initially with a value of twenty-five pence (with no face value shown). From 1990, the face value of new crown coins was raised to five pounds.[1] Preceded by English crown Crown 1707–1965 Succeeded by Twenty–five pence Changing values The legal tender value of the crown remained as five shillings from 1544 to 1965. However, for most of this period there was no denominational designation or "face value" mark of value displayed on the coin. From 1927 to 1939, the word "CROWN" appears, and from 1951 to 1960 this was changed to "FIVE SHILLINGS". Coins minted since 1818 remain legal tender with a face value of 25 pence. Although all "normal" issues since 1951 have been composed of cupro-nickel, special proof versions have been produced for sale to collectors, and as gift items, in silver, gold, and occasionally platinum. The fact that gold £5 crowns are now produced means that there are two different strains of five pound gold coins, namely crowns and what are now termed "quintuple sovereigns" for want of a more concise term.[7][8] Numismatically, the term "crown-sized" is used generically to describe large silver or cupro-nickel coins of about 40 mm in diameter. Most Commonwealth countries still issue crown-sized coins for sale to collectors. New Zealand's original fifty-cent pieces, and Australia's previously round but now dodecagonal fifty-cent piece, although valued at five shillings in predecimal accounting, are all smaller than the standard silver crown pieces issued by those countries (and the UK). They were in fact similarly sized to the predecimal half crown (worth two shillings and sixpence). Composition For silver crowns, the grade of silver adhered to the long-standing standard (established in the 12th century by Henry II) – the Sterling Silver standard of 92.5% silver and 7.5% copper. This was a harder-wearing alloy, yet it was still a rather high grade of silver. It went some way towards discouraging the practice of "clipping", though this practice was further discouraged and largely eliminated with the introduction of the milled edge seen on coins today. In a debasement process which took effect in 1920, the silver content of all British coins was reduced from 92.5% to 50%, with a portion of the remainder consisting of manganese, which caused the coins to tarnish to a very dark colour after they had been in circulation for a significant period. Silver was eliminated altogether in 1947, with the move to a composition of cupro-nickel – except for proof issues, which returned to the pre-1920 92.5% silver composition. Since the Great Recoinage of 1816, a crown has, as a general rule, had a diameter of 38.61 millimetres (1.520 in), and weighed 28.276 grams (defined as 10⁄11 troy ounce).[9][10] Modern mintages Monarch Year Number minted Detail Composition* Edward VII As 5/- (60d - quarter sovereign) 1902 256,020 Coronation 0.925 silver George V 1927 15,030 (proof only) 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver 1928 9,034 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver 1929 4,994 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver 1930 4,847 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver 1931 4,056 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver 1932 2,395 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver 1933 7,132 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver 1934 932 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver 1935 714,769 George V and Queen Mary Silver Jubilee 0.500 silver 1936 2,473 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver George VI 1937 418,699 Coronation 0.500 silver 1951 1,983,540 Festival of Britain Cu/Ni Elizabeth II 1953 5,962,621 Coronation Cu/Ni 1960 1,024,038 British Exhibition in New York Cu/Ni 1965 19,640,000 Death of Sir Winston Churchill Cu/Ni As 25p (quarter sovereign) 1972 7,452,100 Queen Elizabeth II 25th Wedding Anniversary 25p Cu/Ni 1977 37,061,160 Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Cu/Ni 1980 9,306,000 Queen Mother 80th Birthday Cu/Ni 1981 26,773,600 Charles & Diana Wedding Cu/Ni For crowns minted from 1990, which have a value of £5, see here. The specifications for composition refer to the standard circulation versions. Proof versions continue to be minted in Sterling silver. Gallery Quarter sovereign In 1853, the Royal Mint had produced two patterns for a gold 5-shilling coin for circulation use, one denominated as five shillings and the other as a quarter sovereign, but this coin never went into production, in part due to concerns about the small size of the coin and likely wear in circulation.[11] The quarter sovereign was introduced in 2009 as a bullion coin. References icon Money portal Numismatics portal flag United Kingdom portal "The Royal Mint: Five Pound Coin Designs and Specifications". The Royal Mint. Retrieved 10 July 2015. "Crown". Royal Mint Museum. Retrieved 17 July 2022. In 1551 Edward VI issued a large silver coin of the value of five shillings and as its currency value was the same as that of the gold crown it took its name from that coin. Both gold and silver crowns continued to be struck concurrently until early in the reign of Charles II, when minting of the gold crown ceased. Warwick William Wroth, 'Croker, John (1670-1741)' in Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900, vol. 13 "How Much is a 1965 Winston Churchill Coin Worth?". churchillcentral.com. 17 April 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2022. "Spink sets new world record for an English silver coin, 27 March 2014". Spink Auctioneers. Archived from the original on 2 April 2014. Retrieved 27 March 2014. "How can I dispose of commemorative crowns? And why do some have a higher face value than others?". The Royal Mint Museum. Archived from the original on 13 April 2020. Retrieved 22 November 2019. "Quintuple Sovereigns - Five Pound Gold Coins". taxfreegold.co.uk. Retrieved 23 June 2017. "British Gold Proof Commemorative Crowns". taxfreegold.co.uk. Retrieved 23 June 2017. Specifications of British Pre-decimal Coins Kindleberger, Charles P. (2005). A Financial History of Western Europe. Taylor & Francis. p. 60. ISBN 9780415378673. OnlineCoinClub Quarter Sovereign pre-decimal External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Crown (British coin). History of Five Shilling Coins on Coins of the UK Royal Mint Museum's history of Crown Coin Crown, Coin Type from United Kingdom - Online Coin Club vte Currency units named crown or similar Circulating Czech korunaDanish kroneFaroese krónaIcelandic krónaNorwegian kroneSwedish krona Defunct Austrian kroneAustrian Netherlands kronenthalerAustro-Hungarian crownBohemian and Moravian korunaCzechoslovak korunaEstonian kroonFiume kroneHungarian koronaLiechtenstein kroneSlovak korunaSlovak koruna (1939–1945)Yugoslav krone Proposed Greenlandic koruuni As a denomination British crownEnglish crownKronenthaler vte Sterling coinage Decimal 1 / 2 p1p2p5p10p20p50p£1£2 Pre-decimal Quarter farthing ( 1 / 16 d) (British Ceylon)Third farthing ( 1 / 12 d) (Crown Colony of Malta)Half farthing ( 1 / 8 d)Farthing ( 1 / 4 d)Halfpenny ( 1 / 2 d)Penny (1d)Three halfpence (1+ 1 / 2 d) (British Ceylon & British West Indies)Twopence (2d)Threepence (3d)Fourpence (4d)Sixpence (6d)Shilling (1/–)Fifteen pence (1/3d) (Australia)Eighteen Pence(1/6d) (British Ireland)Florin (2/–)Half crown (2/6d)Thirty Pence(2/6d) (British Ireland)Double florin (4/–)Crown (5/–)Six Shillings (6/-) (British Ireland)Quarter guinea (5/3d)Third guinea (7/–)Half sovereign (10/–)Half guinea (10/6d)Sovereign (£1)Guinea (£1/1/–)Double sovereign (£2)Two guineas (£2/2/–)Five pounds (£5)Five guineas (£5/5/–) Commemorative 3p (Tristan Da Cunha)6p25p60p (Isle of Man)70p (Ascension Island)£5£10£20£25£50£100£200£500£1000Maundy money Bullion BritanniaQuarter sovereignHalf sovereignSovereignDouble sovereignQuintuple sovereignLunarThe Queen's BeastsLandmarks of Britain See also SterlingSterling banknotesList of British banknotes and coinsList of British currenciesJubilee coinageOld Head coinageScottish coinageCoins of IrelandList of people on coins of the United Kingdom Categories: Crown (currency)Coins of Great BritainCoins of the United KingdomQuarter-base-unit coins Queen Victoria Victoria Photograph of Queen Victoria, 1882 Photograph by Alexander Bassano, 1882 Queen of the United Kingdom (more ...) Reign 20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901 Coronation 28 June 1838 Predecessor William IV Successor Edward VII Empress of India Reign 1 May 1876 – 22 January 1901 Imperial Durbar 1 January 1877 Successor Edward VII Born Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent 24 May 1819 Kensington Palace, London, England Died 22 January 1901 (aged 81) Osborne House, Isle of Wight, England Burial 4 February 1901 Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore, Windsor Spouse Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (m. 1840; died 1861) Issue Victoria, German Empress Edward VII, King of the United Kingdom Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg House Hanover Father Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn Mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld Signature Victoria's signature Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death in 1901. Known as the Victorian era, her reign of 63 years and seven months was longer than any previous British monarch. It was a period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. In 1876, the British Parliament voted to grant her the additional title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (the fourth son of King George III), and Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. After the deaths of her father and grandfather in 1820, she was raised under close supervision by her mother and her comptroller, John Conroy. She inherited the throne aged 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without surviving legitimate issue. Victoria, a constitutional monarch, attempted privately to influence government policy and ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was identified with strict standards of personal morality. Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their children married into royal and noble families across the continent, earning Victoria the sobriquet "the grandmother of Europe" and spreading haemophilia in European royalty. After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, British republicanism temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond jubilees were times of public celebration. She died on the Isle of Wight in 1901. The last British monarch of the House of Hanover, she was succeeded by her son Edward VII of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Birth and family Portrait of Victoria at age 4 Victoria at the age of four, by Stephen Poyntz Denning, 1823 Victoria's father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son of the reigning King of the United Kingdom, George III. Until 1817, Edward's niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a succession crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent and his unmarried brothers to marry and have children. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl (1804–1856) and Feodora (1807–1872)—by her first marriage to Emich Carl, 2nd Prince of Leiningen. Her brother Leopold was Princess Charlotte's widower and later the first king of Belgium. The Duke and Duchess of Kent's only child, Victoria, was born at 4:15 a.m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London.[1] Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace.[a] She was baptised Alexandrina after one of her godparents, Tsar Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina (or Georgiana), Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of Kent's eldest brother George, Prince Regent.[2] At birth, Victoria was fifth in the line of succession after the four eldest sons of George III: the Prince Regent (later George IV); Frederick, Duke of York; William, Duke of Clarence (later William IV); and Victoria's father, Edward, Duke of Kent.[3] The Prince Regent had no surviving children, and the Duke of York had no children; further, both were estranged from their wives, who were both past child-bearing age, so the two eldest brothers were unlikely to have any further legitimate children. William and Edward married on the same day in 1818, but both of William's legitimate daughters died as infants. The first of these was Princess Charlotte, who was born and died on 27 March 1819, two months before Victoria was born. Victoria's father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old. A week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son as George IV. Victoria was then third in line to the throne after Frederick and William. William's second daughter, Princess Elizabeth of Clarence, lived for twelve weeks from 10 December 1820 to 4 March 1821, and for that period Victoria was fourth in line.[4] The Duke of York died in 1827, followed by George IV in 1830; the throne passed to their next surviving brother, William, and Victoria became heir presumptive. The Regency Act 1830 made special provision for Victoria's mother to act as regent in case William died while Victoria was still a minor.[5] King William distrusted the Duchess's capacity to be regent, and in 1836 he declared in her presence that he wanted to live until Victoria's 18th birthday, so that a regency could be avoided.[6] Heir presumptive Portrait of Victoria with her spaniel Dash by George Hayter, 1833 Victoria later described her childhood as "rather melancholy".[7] Her mother was extremely protective, and Victoria was raised largely isolated from other children under the so-called "Kensington System", an elaborate set of rules and protocols devised by the Duchess and her ambitious and domineering comptroller, Sir John Conroy, who was rumoured to be the Duchess's lover.[8] The system prevented the princess from meeting people whom her mother and Conroy deemed undesirable (including most of her father's family), and was designed to render her weak and dependent upon them.[9] The Duchess avoided the court because she was scandalised by the presence of King William's illegitimate children.[10] Victoria shared a bedroom with her mother every night, studied with private tutors to a regular timetable, and spent her play-hours with her dolls and her King Charles Spaniel, Dash.[11] Her lessons included French, German, Italian, and Latin,[12] but she spoke only English at home.[13] Victoria's sketch of herself Self-portrait, 1835 In 1830, the Duchess of Kent and Conroy took Victoria across the centre of England to visit the Malvern Hills, stopping at towns and great country houses along the way.[14] Similar journeys to other parts of England and Wales were taken in 1832, 1833, 1834 and 1835. To the King's annoyance, Victoria was enthusiastically welcomed in each of the stops.[15] William compared the journeys to royal progresses and was concerned that they portrayed Victoria as his rival rather than his heir presumptive.[16] Victoria disliked the trips; the constant round of public appearances made her tired and ill, and there was little time for her to rest.[17] She objected on the grounds of the King's disapproval, but her mother dismissed his complaints as motivated by jealousy and forced Victoria to continue the tours.[18] At Ramsgate in October 1835, Victoria contracted a severe fever, which Conroy initially dismissed as a childish pretence.[19] While Victoria was ill, Conroy and the Duchess unsuccessfully badgered her to make Conroy her private secretary.[20] As a teenager, Victoria resisted persistent attempts by her mother and Conroy to appoint him to her staff.[21] Once queen, she banned him from her presence, but he remained in her mother's household.[22] By 1836, Victoria's maternal uncle Leopold, who had been King of the Belgians since 1831, hoped to marry her to Prince Albert,[23] the son of his brother Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Leopold arranged for Victoria's mother to invite her Coburg relatives to visit her in May 1836, with the purpose of introducing Victoria to Albert.[24] William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit of Prince Alexander of the Netherlands, second son of the Prince of Orange.[25] Victoria was aware of the various matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes.[26] According to her diary, she enjoyed Albert's company from the beginning. After the visit she wrote, "[Albert] is extremely handsome; his hair is about the same colour as mine; his eyes are large and blue, and he has a beautiful nose and a very sweet mouth with fine teeth; but the charm of his countenance is his expression, which is most delightful."[27] Alexander, on the other hand, she described as "very plain".[28] Victoria wrote to King Leopold, whom she considered her "best and kindest adviser",[29] to thank him "for the prospect of great happiness you have contributed to give me, in the person of dear Albert ... He possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy. He is so sensible, so kind, and so good, and so amiable too. He has besides the most pleasing and delightful exterior and appearance you can possibly see."[30] However at 17, Victoria, though interested in Albert, was not yet ready to marry. The parties did not undertake a formal engagement, but assumed that the match would take place in due time.[31] Early reign Accession Drawing of two men on their knees in front of Victoria Victoria receives the news of her accession from Lord Conyngham (left) and the Archbishop of Canterbury. Painting by Henry Tanworth Wells, 1887. Victoria turned 18 on 24 May 1837, and a regency was avoided. Less than a month later, on 20 June 1837, William IV died at the age of 71, and Victoria became Queen of the United Kingdom.[b] In her diary she wrote, "I was awoke at 6 o'clock by Mamma, who told me the Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Conyngham were here and wished to see me. I got out of bed and went into my sitting-room (only in my dressing gown) and alone, and saw them. Lord Conyngham then acquainted me that my poor Uncle, the King, was no more, and had expired at 12 minutes past 2 this morning, and consequently that I am Queen."[32] Official documents prepared on the first day of her reign described her as Alexandrina Victoria, but the first name was withdrawn at her own wish and not used again.[33] Since 1714, Britain had shared a monarch with Hanover in Germany, but under Salic law, women were excluded from the Hanoverian succession. While Victoria inherited the British throne, her father's unpopular younger brother, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, became King of Hanover. He was Victoria's heir presumptive until she had a child.[34] Coronation portrait by George Hayter At the time of Victoria's accession, the government was led by the Whig prime minister Lord Melbourne. He at once became a powerful influence on the politically inexperienced monarch, who relied on him for advice.[35] Charles Greville supposed that the widowed and childless Melbourne was "passionately fond of her as he might be of his daughter if he had one", and Victoria probably saw him as a father figure.[36] Her coronation took place on 28 June 1838 at Westminster Abbey. Over 400,000 visitors came to London for the celebrations.[37] She became the first sovereign to take up residence at Buckingham Palace[38] and inherited the revenues of the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall as well as being granted a civil list allowance of £385,000 per year. Financially prudent, she paid off her father's debts.[39] At the start of her reign Victoria was popular,[40] but her reputation suffered in an 1839 court intrigue when one of her mother's ladies-in-waiting, Lady Flora Hastings, developed an abdominal growth that was widely rumoured to be an out-of-wedlock pregnancy by Sir John Conroy.[41] Victoria believed the rumours.[42] She hated Conroy, and despised "that odious Lady Flora",[43] because she had conspired with Conroy and the Duchess of Kent in the Kensington System.[44] At first, Lady Flora refused to submit to an intimate medical examination, until in mid-February she eventually acquiesced, and was found to be a virgin.[45] Conroy, the Hastings family, and the opposition Tories organised a press campaign implicating the Queen in the spreading of false rumours about Lady Flora.[46] When Lady Flora died in July, the post-mortem revealed a large tumour on her liver that had distended her abdomen.[47] At public appearances, Victoria was hissed and jeered as "Mrs. Melbourne".[48] In 1839, Melbourne resigned after Radicals and Tories (both of whom Victoria detested) voted against a bill to suspend the constitution of Jamaica. The bill removed political power from plantation owners who were resisting measures associated with the abolition of slavery.[49] The Queen commissioned a Tory, Robert Peel, to form a new ministry. At the time, it was customary for the prime minister to appoint members of the Royal Household, who were usually his political allies and their spouses. Many of the Queen's ladies of the bedchamber were wives of Whigs, and Peel expected to replace them with wives of Tories. In what became known as the "bedchamber crisis", Victoria, advised by Melbourne, objected to their removal. Peel refused to govern under the restrictions imposed by the Queen, and consequently resigned his commission, allowing Melbourne to return to office.[50] Marriage See also: Wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Wedding dress of Queen Victoria Painting of a lavish wedding attended by richly dressed people in a magnificent room Marriage of Victoria and Albert, painted by George Hayter Though Victoria was now queen, as an unmarried young woman she was required by social convention to live with her mother, despite their differences over the Kensington System and her mother's continued reliance on Conroy.[51] Her mother was consigned to a remote apartment in Buckingham Palace, and Victoria often refused to see her.[52] When Victoria complained to Melbourne that her mother's proximity promised "torment for many years", Melbourne sympathised but said it could be avoided by marriage, which Victoria called a "schocking [sic] alternative".[53] Victoria showed interest in Albert's education for the future role he would have to play as her husband, but she resisted attempts to rush her into wedlock.[54] Victoria continued to praise Albert following his second visit in October 1839. Albert and Victoria felt mutual affection and the Queen proposed to him on 15 October 1839, just five days after he had arrived at Windsor.[55] They were married on 10 February 1840, in the Chapel Royal of St James's Palace, London. Victoria was love-struck. She spent the evening after their wedding lying down with a headache, but wrote ecstatically in her diary: I NEVER, NEVER spent such an evening!!! MY DEAREST DEAREST DEAR Albert ... his excessive love & affection gave me feelings of heavenly love & happiness I never could have hoped to have felt before! He clasped me in his arms, & we kissed each other again & again! His beauty, his sweetness & gentleness – really how can I ever be thankful enough to have such a Husband! ... to be called by names of tenderness, I have never yet heard used to me before – was bliss beyond belief! Oh! This was the happiest day of my life![56] Albert became an important political adviser as well as the Queen's companion, replacing Melbourne as the dominant influential figure in the first half of her life.[57] Victoria's mother was evicted from the palace, to Ingestre House in Belgrave Square. After the death of Victoria's aunt, Princess Augusta, in 1840, Victoria's mother was given both Clarence and Frogmore Houses.[58] Through Albert's mediation, relations between mother and daughter slowly improved.[59] Contemporary lithograph of Edward Oxford's attempt to assassinate Victoria, 1840 During Victoria's first pregnancy in 1840, in the first few months of the marriage, 18-year-old Edward Oxford attempted to assassinate her while she was riding in a carriage with Prince Albert on her way to visit her mother. Oxford fired twice, but either both bullets missed or, as he later claimed, the guns had no shot.[60] He was tried for high treason, found not guilty by reason of insanity, committed to an insane asylum indefinitely, and later sent to live in Australia.[61] In the immediate aftermath of the attack, Victoria's popularity soared, mitigating residual discontent over the Hastings affair and the bedchamber crisis.[62] Her daughter, also named Victoria, was born on 21 November 1840. The Queen hated being pregnant,[63] viewed breast-feeding with disgust,[64] and thought newborn babies were ugly.[65] Nevertheless, over the following seventeen years, she and Albert had a further eight children: Albert Edward (b. 1841), Alice (b. 1843), Alfred (b. 1844), Helena (b. 1846), Louise (b. 1848), Arthur (b. 1850), Leopold (b. 1853) and Beatrice (b. 1857). The household was largely run by Victoria's childhood governess, Baroness Louise Lehzen from Hanover. Lehzen had been a formative influence on Victoria[66] and had supported her against the Kensington System.[67] Albert, however, thought that Lehzen was incompetent and that her mismanagement threatened his daughter's health. After a furious row between Victoria and Albert over the issue, Lehzen was pensioned off in 1842, and Victoria's close relationship with her ended.[68] Married reign Portrait by Franz Xaver Winterhalter, 1843 On 29 May 1842, Victoria was riding in a carriage along The Mall, London, when John Francis aimed a pistol at her, but the gun did not fire. The assailant escaped; the following day, Victoria drove the same route, though faster and with a greater escort, in a deliberate attempt to bait Francis into taking a second aim and catch him in the act. As expected, Francis shot at her, but he was seized by plainclothes policemen, and convicted of high treason. On 3 July, two days after Francis's death sentence was commuted to transportation for life, John William Bean also tried to fire a pistol at the Queen, but it was loaded only with paper and tobacco and had too little charge.[69] Edward Oxford felt that the attempts were encouraged by his acquittal in 1840. Bean was sentenced to 18 months in jail.[70] In a similar attack in 1849, unemployed Irishman William Hamilton fired a powder-filled pistol at Victoria's carriage as it passed along Constitution Hill, London.[71] In 1850, the Queen did sustain injury when she was assaulted by a possibly insane ex-army officer, Robert Pate. As Victoria was riding in a carriage, Pate struck her with his cane, crushing her bonnet and bruising her forehead. Both Hamilton and Pate were sentenced to seven years' transportation.[72] Melbourne's support in the House of Commons weakened through the early years of Victoria's reign, and in the 1841 general election the Whigs were defeated. Peel became prime minister, and the ladies of the bedchamber most associated with the Whigs were replaced.[73] Victoria cuddling a child next to her Earliest known photograph of Victoria, here with her eldest daughter, c. 1845[74] In 1845, Ireland was hit by a potato blight.[75] In the next four years, over a million Irish people died and another million emigrated in what became known as the Great Famine.[76] In Ireland, Victoria was labelled "The Famine Queen".[77][78] In January 1847 she personally donated £2,000 (equivalent to between £178,000 and £6.5 million in 2016[79]) to the British Relief Association, more than any other individual famine relief donor,[80] and also supported the Maynooth Grant to a Roman Catholic seminary in Ireland, despite Protestant opposition.[81] The story that she donated only £5 in aid to the Irish, and on the same day gave the same amount to Battersea Dogs Home, was a myth generated towards the end of the 19th century.[82] By 1846, Peel's ministry faced a crisis involving the repeal of the Corn Laws. Many Tories—by then known also as Conservatives—were opposed to the repeal, but Peel, some Tories (the free-trade oriented liberal conservative "Peelites"), most Whigs and Victoria supported it. Peel resigned in 1846, after the repeal narrowly passed, and was replaced by Lord John Russell.[83] Victoria's British prime ministers Year Prime Minister (party) 1835 Viscount Melbourne (Whig) 1841 Sir Robert Peel (Conservative) 1846 Lord John Russell (W) 1852 (Feb) Earl of Derby (C) 1852 (Dec) Earl of Aberdeen (Peelite) 1855 Viscount Palmerston (Liberal) 1858 Earl of Derby (C) 1859 Viscount Palmerston (L) 1865 Earl Russell [Lord John Russell] (L) 1866 Earl of Derby (C) 1868 (Feb) Benjamin Disraeli (C) 1868 (Dec) William Gladstone (L) 1874 Benjamin Disraeli [Ld Beaconsfield] (C) 1880 William Gladstone (L) 1885 Marquess of Salisbury (C) 1886 (Feb) William Gladstone (L) 1886 (Jul) Marquess of Salisbury (C) 1892 William Gladstone (L) 1894 Earl of Rosebery (L) 1895 Marquess of Salisbury (C) See List of prime ministers of Queen Victoria for details of her British and Imperial premiers Internationally, Victoria took a keen interest in the improvement of relations between France and Britain.[84] She made and hosted several visits between the British royal family and the House of Orleans, who were related by marriage through the Coburgs. In 1843 and 1845, she and Albert stayed with King Louis Philippe I at Château d'Eu in Normandy; she was the first British or English monarch to visit a French monarch since the meeting of Henry VIII of England and Francis I of France on the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520.[85] When Louis Philippe made a reciprocal trip in 1844, he became the first French king to visit a British sovereign.[86] Louis Philippe was deposed in the revolutions of 1848, and fled to exile in England.[87] At the height of a revolutionary scare in the United Kingdom in April 1848, Victoria and her family left London for the greater safety of Osborne House,[88] a private estate on the Isle of Wight that they had purchased in 1845 and redeveloped.[89] Demonstrations by Chartists and Irish nationalists failed to attract widespread support, and the scare died down without any major disturbances.[90] Victoria's first visit to Ireland in 1849 was a public relations success, but it had no lasting impact or effect on the growth of Irish nationalism.[91] Portrait of the young Queen by Herbert Smith, 1848 Russell's ministry, though Whig, was not favoured by the Queen.[92] She found particularly offensive the Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, who often acted without consulting the Cabinet, the Prime Minister, or the Queen.[93] Victoria complained to Russell that Palmerston sent official dispatches to foreign leaders without her knowledge, but Palmerston was retained in office and continued to act on his own initiative, despite her repeated remonstrances. It was only in 1851 that Palmerston was removed after he announced the British government's approval of President Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte's coup in France without consulting the Prime Minister.[94] The following year, President Bonaparte was declared Emperor Napoleon III, by which time Russell's administration had been replaced by a short-lived minority government led by Lord Derby. Photograph of a seated Victoria, dressed in black, holding an infant with her children and Prince Albert standing around her Albert, Victoria and their nine children, 1857. Left to right: Alice, Arthur, Prince Albert, Albert Edward, Leopold, Louise, Queen Victoria with Beatrice, Alfred, Victoria, and Helena. In 1853, Victoria gave birth to her eighth child, Leopold, with the aid of the new anaesthetic, chloroform. She was so impressed by the relief it gave from the pain of childbirth that she used it again in 1857 at the birth of her ninth and final child, Beatrice, despite opposition from members of the clergy, who considered it against biblical teaching, and members of the medical profession, who thought it dangerous.[95] Victoria may have had postnatal depression after many of her pregnancies.[96] Letters from Albert to Victoria intermittently complain of her loss of self-control. For example, about a month after Leopold's birth Albert complained in a letter to Victoria about her "continuance of hysterics" over a "miserable trifle".[97] In early 1855, the government of Lord Aberdeen, who had replaced Derby, fell amidst recriminations over the poor management of British troops in the Crimean War. Victoria approached both Derby and Russell to form a ministry, but neither had sufficient support, and Victoria was forced to appoint Palmerston as prime minister.[98] Napoleon III, Britain's closest ally as a result of the Crimean War,[96] visited London in April 1855, and from 17 to 28 August the same year Victoria and Albert returned the visit.[99] Napoleon III met the couple at Boulogne and accompanied them to Paris.[100] They visited the Exposition Universelle (a successor to Albert's 1851 brainchild the Great Exhibition) and Napoleon I's tomb at Les Invalides (to which his remains had only been returned in 1840), and were guests of honour at a 1,200-guest ball at the Palace of Versailles.[101] Portrait by Winterhalter, 1859 On 14 January 1858, an Italian refugee from Britain called Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate Napoleon III with a bomb made in England.[102] The ensuing diplomatic crisis destabilised the government, and Palmerston resigned. Derby was reinstated as prime minister.[103] Victoria and Albert attended the opening of a new basin at the French military port of Cherbourg on 5 August 1858, in an attempt by Napoleon III to reassure Britain that his military preparations were directed elsewhere. On her return Victoria wrote to Derby reprimanding him for the poor state of the Royal Navy in comparison to the French Navy.[104] Derby's ministry did not last long, and in June 1859 Victoria recalled Palmerston to office.[105] Eleven days after Orsini's assassination attempt in France, Victoria's eldest daughter married Prince Frederick William of Prussia in London. They had been betrothed since September 1855, when Princess Victoria was 14 years old; the marriage was delayed by the Queen and her husband Albert until the bride was 17.[106] The Queen and Albert hoped that their daughter and son-in-law would be a liberalising influence in the enlarging Prussian state.[107] The Queen felt "sick at heart" to see her daughter leave England for Germany; "It really makes me shudder", she wrote to Princess Victoria in one of her frequent letters, "when I look round to all your sweet, happy, unconscious sisters, and think I must give them up too – one by one."[108] Almost exactly a year later, the Princess gave birth to the Queen's first grandchild, Wilhelm, who would become the last German Emperor. Widowhood Victoria photographed by J. J. E. Mayall, 1860 In March 1861, Victoria's mother died, with Victoria at her side. Through reading her mother's papers, Victoria discovered that her mother had loved her deeply;[109] she was heart-broken, and blamed Conroy and Lehzen for "wickedly" estranging her from her mother.[110] To relieve his wife during her intense and deep grief,[111] Albert took on most of her duties, despite being ill himself with chronic stomach trouble.[112] In August, Victoria and Albert visited their son, Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, who was attending army manoeuvres near Dublin, and spent a few days holidaying in Killarney. In November, Albert was made aware of gossip that his son had slept with an actress in Ireland.[113] Appalled, he travelled to Cambridge, where his son was studying, to confront him.[114] By the beginning of December, Albert was very unwell.[115] He was diagnosed with typhoid fever by William Jenner, and died on 14 December 1861. Victoria was devastated.[116] She blamed her husband's death on worry over the Prince of Wales's philandering. He had been "killed by that dreadful business", she said.[117] She entered a state of mourning and wore black for the remainder of her life. She avoided public appearances and rarely set foot in London in the following years.[118] Her seclusion earned her the nickname "widow of Windsor".[119] Her weight increased through comfort eating, which reinforced her aversion to public appearances.[120] Victoria's self-imposed isolation from the public diminished the popularity of the monarchy, and encouraged the growth of the republican movement.[121] She did undertake her official government duties, yet chose to remain secluded in her royal residences—Windsor Castle, Osborne House, and the private estate in Scotland that she and Albert had acquired in 1847, Balmoral Castle. In March 1864 a protester stuck a notice on the railings of Buckingham Palace that announced "these commanding premises to be let or sold in consequence of the late occupant's declining business".[122] Her uncle Leopold wrote to her advising her to appear in public. She agreed to visit the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at Kensington and take a drive through London in an open carriage.[123] Victoria and John Brown at Balmoral, 1863. Photograph by G. W. Wilson. Through the 1860s, Victoria relied increasingly on a manservant from Scotland, John Brown.[124] Rumours of a romantic connection and even a secret marriage appeared in print, and some referred to the Queen as "Mrs. Brown".[125] The story of their relationship was the subject of the 1997 movie Mrs. Brown. A painting by Sir Edwin Henry Landseer depicting the Queen with Brown was exhibited at the Royal Academy, and Victoria published a book, Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands, which featured Brown prominently and in which the Queen praised him highly.[126] Palmerston died in 1865, and after a brief ministry led by Russell, Derby returned to power. In 1866, Victoria attended the State Opening of Parliament for the first time since Albert's death.[127] The following year she supported the passing of the Reform Act 1867 which doubled the electorate by extending the franchise to many urban working men,[128] though she was not in favour of votes for women.[129] Derby resigned in 1868, to be replaced by Benjamin Disraeli, who charmed Victoria. "Everyone likes flattery," he said, "and when you come to royalty you should lay it on with a trowel."[130] With the phrase "we authors, Ma'am", he complimented her.[131] Disraeli's ministry only lasted a matter of months, and at the end of the year his Liberal rival, William Ewart Gladstone, was appointed prime minister. Victoria found Gladstone's demeanour far less appealing; he spoke to her, she is thought to have complained, as though she were "a public meeting rather than a woman".[132] In 1870 republican sentiment in Britain, fed by the Queen's seclusion, was boosted after the establishment of the Third French Republic.[133] A republican rally in Trafalgar Square demanded Victoria's removal, and Radical MPs spoke against her.[134] In August and September 1871, she was seriously ill with an abscess in her arm, which Joseph Lister successfully lanced and treated with his new antiseptic carbolic acid spray.[135] In late November 1871, at the height of the republican movement, the Prince of Wales contracted typhoid fever, the disease that was believed to have killed his father, and Victoria was fearful her son would die.[136] As the tenth anniversary of her husband's death approached, her son's condition grew no better, and Victoria's distress continued.[137] To general rejoicing, he recovered.[138] Mother and son attended a public parade through London and a grand service of thanksgiving in St Paul's Cathedral on 27 February 1872, and republican feeling subsided.[139] On the last day of February 1872, two days after the thanksgiving service, 17-year-old Arthur O'Connor, a great-nephew of Irish MP Feargus O'Connor, waved an unloaded pistol at Victoria's open carriage just after she had arrived at Buckingham Palace. Brown, who was attending the Queen, grabbed him and O'Connor was later sentenced to 12 months' imprisonment,[140] and a birching.[141] As a result of the incident, Victoria's popularity recovered further.[142] Empress Wikisource has original text related to this article: Proclamation by the Queen in Council, to the princes, chiefs, and people of India After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British East India Company, which had ruled much of India, was dissolved, and Britain's possessions and protectorates on the Indian subcontinent were formally incorporated into the British Empire. The Queen had a relatively balanced view of the conflict, and condemned atrocities on both sides.[143] She wrote of "her feelings of horror and regret at the result of this bloody civil war",[144] and insisted, urged on by Albert, that an official proclamation announcing the transfer of power from the company to the state "should breathe feelings of generosity, benevolence and religious toleration".[145] At her behest, a reference threatening the "undermining of native religions and customs" was replaced by a passage guaranteeing religious freedom.[145] Victoria admired Heinrich von Angeli's 1875 portrait of her for its "honesty, total want of flattery, and appreciation of character".[146] In the 1874 general election, Disraeli was returned to power. He passed the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874, which removed Catholic rituals from the Anglican liturgy and which Victoria strongly supported.[147] She preferred short, simple services, and personally considered herself more aligned with the presbyterian Church of Scotland than the episcopal Church of England.[148] Disraeli also pushed the Royal Titles Act 1876 through Parliament, so that Victoria took the title "Empress of India" from 1 May 1876.[149] The new title was proclaimed at the Delhi Durbar of 1 January 1877.[150] On 14 December 1878, the anniversary of Albert's death, Victoria's second daughter Alice, who had married Louis of Hesse, died of diphtheria in Darmstadt. Victoria noted the coincidence of the dates as "almost incredible and most mysterious".[151] In May 1879, she became a great-grandmother (on the birth of Princess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen) and passed her "poor old 60th birthday". She felt "aged" by "the loss of my beloved child".[152] Between April 1877 and February 1878, she threatened five times to abdicate while pressuring Disraeli to act against Russia during the Russo-Turkish War, but her threats had no impact on the events or their conclusion with the Congress of Berlin.[153] Disraeli's expansionist foreign policy, which Victoria endorsed, led to conflicts such as the Anglo-Zulu War and the Second Anglo-Afghan War. "If we are to maintain our position as a first-rate Power", she wrote, "we must ... be Prepared for attacks and wars, somewhere or other, CONTINUALLY."[154] Victoria saw the expansion of the British Empire as civilising and benign, protecting native peoples from more aggressive powers or cruel rulers: "It is not in our custom to annexe countries", she said, "unless we are obliged & forced to do so."[155] To Victoria's dismay, Disraeli lost the 1880 general election, and Gladstone returned as prime minister.[156] When Disraeli died the following year, she was blinded by "fast falling tears",[157] and erected a memorial tablet "placed by his grateful Sovereign and Friend, Victoria R.I."[158] Later years Victorian farthing, 1884 On 2 March 1882, Roderick Maclean, a disgruntled poet apparently offended by Victoria's refusal to accept one of his poems,[159] shot at the Queen as her carriage left Windsor railway station. Gordon Chesney Wilson and another schoolboy from Eton College struck him with their umbrellas, until he was hustled away by a policeman.[160] Victoria was outraged when he was found not guilty by reason of insanity,[161] but was so pleased by the many expressions of loyalty after the attack that she said it was "worth being shot at—to see how much one is loved".[162] On 17 March 1883, Victoria fell down some stairs at Windsor, which left her lame until July; she never fully recovered and was plagued with rheumatism thereafter.[163] John Brown died 10 days after her accident, and to the consternation of her private secretary, Sir Henry Ponsonby, Victoria began work on a eulogistic biography of Brown.[164] Ponsonby and Randall Davidson, Dean of Windsor, who had both seen early drafts, advised Victoria against publication, on the grounds that it would stoke the rumours of a love affair.[165] The manuscript was destroyed.[166] In early 1884, Victoria did publish More Leaves from a Journal of a Life in the Highlands, a sequel to her earlier book, which she dedicated to her "devoted personal attendant and faithful friend John Brown".[167] On the day after the first anniversary of Brown's death, Victoria was informed by telegram that her youngest son, Leopold, had died in Cannes. He was "the dearest of my dear sons", she lamented.[168] The following month, Victoria's youngest child, Beatrice, met and fell in love with Prince Henry of Battenberg at the wedding of Victoria's granddaughter Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine to Henry's brother Prince Louis of Battenberg. Beatrice and Henry planned to marry, but Victoria opposed the match at first, wishing to keep Beatrice at home to act as her companion. After a year, she was won around to the marriage by their promise to remain living with and attending her.[169] Extent of the British Empire in 1898 Victoria was pleased when Gladstone resigned in 1885 after his budget was defeated.[170] She thought his government was "the worst I have ever had", and blamed him for the death of General Gordon at Khartoum.[171] Gladstone was replaced by Lord Salisbury. Salisbury's government only lasted a few months, however, and Victoria was forced to recall Gladstone, whom she referred to as a "half crazy & really in many ways ridiculous old man".[172] Gladstone attempted to pass a bill granting Ireland home rule, but to Victoria's glee it was defeated.[173] In the ensuing election, Gladstone's party lost to Salisbury's and the government switched hands again. Golden Jubilee The Munshi stands over Victoria as she works at a desk Victoria and the Munshi Abdul Karim In 1887, the British Empire celebrated Victoria's Golden Jubilee. She marked the fiftieth anniversary of her accession on 20 June with a banquet to which 50 kings and princes were invited. The following day, she participated in a procession and attended a thanksgiving service in Westminster Abbey.[174] By this time, Victoria was once again extremely popular.[175] Two days later on 23 June,[176] she engaged two Indian Muslims as waiters, one of whom was Abdul Karim. He was soon promoted to "Munshi": teaching her Urdu and acting as a clerk.[177][178][179] Her family and retainers were appalled, and accused Abdul Karim of spying for the Muslim Patriotic League, and biasing the Queen against the Hindus.[180] Equerry Frederick Ponsonby (the son of Sir Henry) discovered that the Munshi had lied about his parentage, and reported to Lord Elgin, Viceroy of India, "the Munshi occupies very much the same position as John Brown used to do."[181] Victoria dismissed their complaints as racial prejudice.[182] Abdul Karim remained in her service until he returned to India with a pension, on her death.[183] Victoria's eldest daughter became empress consort of Germany in 1888, but she was widowed a little over three months later, and Victoria's eldest grandchild became German Emperor as Wilhelm II. Victoria and Albert's hopes of a liberal Germany would go unfulfilled, as Wilhelm was a firm believer in autocracy. Victoria thought he had "little heart or Zartgefühl [tact] – and ... his conscience & intelligence have been completely wharped [sic]".[184] Gladstone returned to power after the 1892 general election; he was 82 years old. Victoria objected when Gladstone proposed appointing the Radical MP Henry Labouchère to the Cabinet, so Gladstone agreed not to appoint him.[185] In 1894, Gladstone retired and, without consulting the outgoing prime minister, Victoria appointed Lord Rosebery as prime minister.[186] His government was weak, and the following year Lord Salisbury replaced him. Salisbury remained prime minister for the remainder of Victoria's reign.[187] Diamond Jubilee Seated Victoria in embroidered and lace dress Victoria in her official Diamond Jubilee photograph by W. & D. Downey On 23 September 1896, Victoria surpassed her grandfather George III as the longest-reigning monarch in British history. The Queen requested that any special celebrations be delayed until 1897, to coincide with her Diamond Jubilee,[188] which was made a festival of the British Empire at the suggestion of the Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain.[189] The prime ministers of all the self-governing Dominions were invited to London for the festivities.[190] One reason for including the prime ministers of the Dominions and excluding foreign heads of state was to avoid having to invite Victoria's grandson, Wilhelm II of Germany, who, it was feared, might cause trouble at the event.[191] The Queen's Diamond Jubilee procession on 22 June 1897 followed a route six miles long through London and included troops from all over the empire. The procession paused for an open-air service of thanksgiving held outside St Paul's Cathedral, throughout which Victoria sat in her open carriage, to avoid her having to climb the steps to enter the building. The celebration was marked by vast crowds of spectators and great outpourings of affection for the 78-year-old Queen.[192] Queen Victoria in Dublin, 1900 Victoria visited mainland Europe regularly for holidays. In 1889, during a stay in Biarritz, she became the first reigning monarch from Britain to set foot in Spain when she crossed the border for a brief visit.[193] By April 1900, the Boer War was so unpopular in mainland Europe that her annual trip to France seemed inadvisable. Instead, the Queen went to Ireland for the first time since 1861, in part to acknowledge the contribution of Irish regiments to the South African war.[194] Death and succession Portrait by Heinrich von Angeli, 1899 In July 1900, Victoria's second son, Alfred ("Affie"), died. "Oh, God! My poor darling Affie gone too", she wrote in her journal. "It is a horrible year, nothing but sadness & horrors of one kind & another."[195] Following a custom she maintained throughout her widowhood, Victoria spent the Christmas of 1900 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. Rheumatism in her legs had rendered her disabled, and her eyesight was clouded by cataracts.[196] Through early January, she felt "weak and unwell",[197] and by mid-January she was "drowsy ... dazed, [and] confused".[198] She died on 22 January 1901, at half past six in the evening, at the age of 81.[199] Her son and successor, King Edward VII, and her eldest grandson, Emperor Wilhelm II, were at her deathbed.[200] Her favourite pet Pomeranian, Turi, was laid upon her deathbed as a last request.[201] Poster proclaiming a day of mourning in Toronto on the day of Victoria's funeral In 1897, Victoria had written instructions for her funeral, which was to be military as befitting a soldier's daughter and the head of the army,[96] and white instead of black.[202] On 25 January, Edward, Wilhelm, and her third son, Arthur, helped lift her body into the coffin.[203] She was dressed in a white dress and her wedding veil.[204] An array of mementos commemorating her extended family, friends and servants were laid in the coffin with her, at her request, by her doctor and dressers. One of Albert's dressing gowns was placed by her side, with a plaster cast of his hand, while a lock of John Brown's hair, along with a picture of him, was placed in her left hand concealed from the view of the family by a carefully positioned bunch of flowers.[96][205] Items of jewellery placed on Victoria included the wedding ring of John Brown's mother, given to her by Brown in 1883.[96] Her funeral was held on Saturday 2 February, in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, and after two days of lying-in-state, she was interred beside Prince Albert in the Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore, at Windsor Great Park.[206] With a reign of 63 years, seven months, and two days, Victoria was the longest-reigning British monarch and the longest-reigning queen regnant in world history, until her great-great-granddaughter Elizabeth II surpassed her on 9 September 2015.[207] She was the last monarch of Britain from the House of Hanover; her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to her husband's House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Legacy See also: Cultural depictions of Queen Victoria Victoria smiling Victoria amused. The remark "We are not amused" is attributed to her but there is no direct evidence that she ever said it,[96][208] and she denied doing so.[209] According to one of her biographers, Giles St Aubyn, Victoria wrote an average of 2,500 words a day during her adult life.[210] From July 1832 until just before her death, she kept a detailed journal, which eventually encompassed 122 volumes.[211] After Victoria's death, her youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice, was appointed her literary executor. Beatrice transcribed and edited the diaries covering Victoria's accession onwards, and burned the originals in the process.[212] Despite this destruction, much of the diaries still exist. In addition to Beatrice's edited copy, Lord Esher transcribed the volumes from 1832 to 1861 before Beatrice destroyed them.[213] Part of Victoria's extensive correspondence has been published in volumes edited by A. C. Benson, Hector Bolitho, George Earle Buckle, Lord Esher, Roger Fulford, and Richard Hough among others.[214] Bronze statue of winged victory mounted on a marble four-sided base with a marble figure on each side The Victoria Memorial in front of Buckingham Palace was erected as part of the remodelling of the façade of the Palace a decade after her death. Victoria was physically unprepossessing—she was stout, dowdy and only about five feet (1.5 metres) tall—but she succeeded in projecting a grand image.[215] She experienced unpopularity during the first years of her widowhood, but was well liked during the 1880s and 1890s, when she embodied the empire as a benevolent matriarchal figure.[216] Only after the release of her diary and letters did the extent of her political influence become known to the wider public.[96][217] Biographies of Victoria written before much of the primary material became available, such as Lytton Strachey's Queen Victoria of 1921, are now considered out of date.[218] The biographies written by Elizabeth Longford and Cecil Woodham-Smith, in 1964 and 1972 respectively, are still widely admired.[219] They, and others, conclude that as a person Victoria was emotional, obstinate, honest, and straight-talking.[220] Contrary to popular belief, her staff and family recorded that Victoria "was immensely amused and roared with laughter" on many occasions.[221] Through Victoria's reign, the gradual establishment of a modern constitutional monarchy in Britain continued. Reforms of the voting system increased the power of the House of Commons at the expense of the House of Lords and the monarch.[222] In 1867, Walter Bagehot wrote that the monarch only retained "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn".[223] As Victoria's monarchy became more symbolic than political, it placed a strong emphasis on morality and family values, in contrast to the sexual, financial and personal scandals that had been associated with previous members of the House of Hanover and which had discredited the monarchy. The concept of the "family monarchy", with which the burgeoning middle classes could identify, was solidified.[224] Descendants and haemophilia Victoria's links with Europe's royal families earned her the nickname "the grandmother of Europe".[225] Of the 42 grandchildren of Victoria and Albert, 34 survived to adulthood. Their living descendants include Elizabeth II; Harald V of Norway; Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden; Margrethe II of Denmark; and Felipe VI of Spain. Victoria's youngest son, Leopold, was affected by the blood-clotting disease haemophilia B and at least two of her five daughters, Alice and Beatrice, were carriers. Royal haemophiliacs descended from Victoria included her great-grandsons, Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia; Alfonso, Prince of Asturias; and Infante Gonzalo of Spain.[226] The presence of the disease in Victoria's descendants, but not in her ancestors, led to modern speculation that her true father was not the Duke of Kent, but a haemophiliac.[227] There is no documentary evidence of a haemophiliac in connection with Victoria's mother, and as male carriers always had the disease, even if such a man had existed he would have been seriously ill.[228] It is more likely that the mutation arose spontaneously because Victoria's father was over 50 at the time of her conception and haemophilia arises more frequently in the children of older fathers.[229] Spontaneous mutations account for about a third of cases.[230] Namesakes The Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, India Around the world, places and memorials are dedicated to her, especially in the Commonwealth nations. Places named after her include Africa's largest lake, Victoria Falls, the capitals of British Columbia (Victoria) and Saskatchewan (Regina), Bedchamber crisisPrime MinistersEdward OxfordEmpress of IndiaJohn William BeanVictorian eraVictorian moralityVisits to ManchesterForeign visitsState funeralMausoleum Family Albert, Prince Consort (husband)Victoria, Princess Royal (daughter)Edward VII (son)Princess Alice of the United Kingdom (daughter)Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (son)Princess Helena of the United Kingdom (daughter)Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll (daughter)Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (son)Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany (son)Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom (daughter)Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (father)Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (mother)DescendantsRoyal descendantsPrincess Feodora of Leiningen (half-sister)Carl, 3rd Prince of Leiningen (half-brother) Early life Kensington SystemJohn ConroyVictoire ConroyLouise LehzenLady Flora HastingsCharlotte PercyGeorge DavysLegitimacy Honours PlacesEmpire DayRoyal Family OrderVictoria DayVictoria Day (Scotland)Victoria CrossVictoria (plant) Depictions Film Sixty Years a Queen (1913)Victoria in Dover (1936)Victoria the Great (1937)Sixty Glorious Years (1938)Victoria in Dover (1954)Mrs Brown (1997)The Young Victoria (2009)Victoria & Abdul (2017)The Black Prince (2017)Dolittle (2020) Television Happy and Glorious (1952)Victoria Regina (1961)The Young Victoria (1963)Victoria & Albert (2001)Looking for Victoria (2003)Royal Upstairs Downstairs (2011)Victoria (2016–2019) Stage Victoria and Merrie England (1897)Victoria Regina (1934)I and Albert (1972) Statues and Memorials List of statuesLondon MemorialStatueSquareLeedsSt HelensLancasterBristolWeymouthChesterReadingLiverpoolBirminghamBirkenheadDundeeBalmoral cairnsGuernseyIsle of ManValletta StatueGateWinnipegMontreal SquareVictoria, British ColumbiaTorontoReginaBangaloreHong KongKolkataVisakhapatnamPenangSydney BuildingSquareAdelaideBrisbaneMelbourneChristchurch Poetry "The Widow at Windsor" (1892)"Recessional" (1897) Songs VictoriaChoral Songs Stamps British Penny Black VR officialPenny BlueTwo penny bluePenny RedEmbossed stampsHalfpenny Rose RedThree Halfpence RedPenny Venetian RedPenny LilacLilac and Green IssueJubilee Issue Colonial Chalon headCanada 12d blackCanada 2c Large QueenCeylon Dull RoseIndia Inverted Head 4 annasMalta Halfpenny YellowMauritius "Post Office" stamps Related Osborne HouseQueen Victoria's journalsJohn BrownAbdul KarimPets DashDiamond Crown vte English, Scottish and British monarchs Monarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603 Alfred the GreatEdward the ElderÆlfweardÆthelstanEdmund IEadredEadwigEdgar the PeacefulEdward the MartyrÆthelred the UnreadySweynEdmund IronsideCnutHarold IHarthacnutEdward the ConfessorHarold GodwinsonEdgar ÆthelingWilliam IWilliam IIHenry IStephenMatildaHenry IIHenry the Young KingRichard IJohnHenry IIIEdward IEdward IIEdward IIIRichard IIHenry IVHenry VHenry VIEdward IVEdward VRichard IIIHenry VIIHenry VIIIEdward VIJaneMary I and PhilipElizabeth I Kenneth I MacAlpinDonald IConstantine IÁedGiricEochaidDonald IIConstantine IIMalcolm IIndulfDubCuilénAmlaíbKenneth IIConstantine IIIKenneth IIIMalcolm IIDuncan IMacbethLulachMalcolm IIIDonald IIIDuncan IIEdgarAlexander IDavid IMalcolm IVWilliam IAlexander IIAlexander IIIMargaretJohnRobert IDavid IIEdward BalliolRobert IIRobert IIIJames IJames IIJames IIIJames IVJames VMary IJames VI Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603 James I and VICharles ICharles IIJames II and VIIWilliam III and II and Mary IIAnne British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707 AnneGeorge IGeorge IIGeorge IIIGeorge IVWilliam IVVictoriaEdward VIIGeorge VEdward VIIIGeorge VIElizabeth II Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics. vte British princesses The generations indicate descent from George I, who formalised the use of the titles prince and princess for members of the British royal family. Where a princess may have been or is descended from George I more than once, her most senior descent, by which she bore or bears her title, is used. 1st generation Sophia Dorothea, Queen in Prussia 2nd generation Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of OrangePrincess AmeliaPrincess CarolineMary, Landgravine of Hesse-KasselLouise, Queen of Denmark and Norway 3rd generation Augusta, Duchess of BrunswickPrincess ElizabethPrincess LouisaCaroline Matilda, Queen of Denmark and Norway 4th generation Charlotte, Princess Royal and Queen of WürttembergPrincess Augusta SophiaElizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-HomburgPrincess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and EdinburghPrincess SophiaPrincess AmeliaPrincess Sophia of GloucesterPrincess Caroline of Gloucester 5th generation Princess Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-SaalfeldPrincess Elizabeth of ClarenceQueen VictoriaAugusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-StrelitzPrincess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck 6th generation Victoria, Princess Royal and German EmpressAlice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by RhinePrincess Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-HolsteinPrincess Louise, Duchess of ArgyllPrincess Beatrice, Princess Henry of BattenbergPrincess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-RammingenPrincess Marie of Hanover 7th generation Louise, Princess Royal and Duchess of FifePrincess VictoriaMaud, Queen of NorwayMarie, Queen of RomaniaGrand Duchess Victoria Feodorovna of RussiaPrincess Alexandra, Princess of Hohenlohe-LangenburgPrincess Beatrice, Duchess of GallieraMargaret, Crown Princess of SwedenPrincess Patricia, Lady Patricia RamsayPrincess Alice, Countess of AthlonePrincess Marie Louise, Princess Maximilian of BadenAlexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-SchwerinPrincess Olga of Hanover 8th generation Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of HarewoodPrincess Alexandra, 2nd Duchess of FifePrincess Maud, Countess of SoutheskPrincess Sibylla, Duchess of VästerbottenPrincess Caroline Mathilde of Saxe-Coburg and GothaFrederica, Queen of Greece 9th generation Queen Elizabeth IIPrincess Margaret, Countess of SnowdonPrincess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy 10th generation Anne, Princess Royal 11th generation Princess Beatrice, Mrs Edoardo Mapelli MozziPrincess Eugenie, Mrs Jack BrooksbankLady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor1 12th generation Princess Charlotte of Cambridge 1 Status debatable; see her article. vte Hanoverian princesses by birth Generations are numbered by descent from the first King of Hanover, George III. 1st generation Charlotte, Queen of WürttembergPrincess Augusta SophiaElizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-HomburgPrincess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and EdinburghPrincess SophiaPrincess Amelia 2nd generation Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-SaalfeldPrincess Charlotte of ClarenceQueen Victoria of the United KingdomPrincess Elizabeth of ClarenceAugusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-StrelitzPrincess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck 3rd generation Princess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-RammingenPrincess Marie 4th generation Marie Louise, Princess Maximilian of BadenAlexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-SchwerinPrincess Olga 5th generation Frederica, Queen of the Hellenes 6th generation Princess Marie, Countess von HochbergPrincess OlgaPrincess Alexandra, Princess of LeiningenPrincess Friederike 7th generation Princess AlexandraPrincess Eugenia 8th generation Princess ElisabethPrincess EleonoraPrincess Sofia Authority control Edit this at Wikidata General ISNI 1VIAF 1WorldCat National libraries NorwaySpainFrance (data)CataloniaGermanyItalyIsraelUnited StatesLatviaJapanCzech RepublicAustraliaGreeceKoreaCroatiaNetherlandsPolandSwedenVatican Art galleries and museums VictoriaTe Papa (New Zealand) Art research institutes RKD Artists (Netherlands)Artist Names (Getty) Biographical dictionaries Germany Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject TerminologyMusicBrainz artist 2National Archives (US)RISM (France) 1Social Networks and Archival Context 2SUDOC (France) 1Trove (Australia) 1 Categories: Queen Victoria1819 births1901 deathsMonarchs of the United KingdomMonarchs of the Isle of ManHeads of state of CanadaMonarchs of AustraliaHeads of state of New ZealandQueens regnant in the British Isles19th-century British monarchs20th-century British monarchsHouse of HanoverHanoverian princessesHouse of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (United Kingdom)Empresses regnantIndian empressesBritish princesses19th-century diaristsBritish diaristsFounders of English schools and collegesPeople associated with the Royal National College for the BlindPeople from KensingtonBritish people of German descentFemale critics of feminismKnights Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila ViçosaDames of the Order of Saint IsabelGrand Croix of the Légion d'honneurGrand Crosses of the Order of St. SavaRecipients of the Order of the Cross of Takovo What is an Antique 7 What exactly is an Antique? In purist words, and based on the “official” description from the United States Customs Service, antiques have generally been viewed as things with no less than a hundred years of age under their belts. Meaning the scale slides each year since a lot more items age to suit into that particular time period. Then again, the word antique is employed rather freely from the public, and frequently lands up highlighting the age of the individual utilizing it over the definite definition. For a teenager, for instance, a home kitchen items from the 60’s appears “antique,” while a older adult may see antiques as the numerous items they utilized or spotted in the homes of their grandparents as a kid. Varying Views Among “Experts” Obviously, you may ask several different antiques “experts” what exactly an antique is and you’ll obtain a few different answers. There have already been hot discussions about this very topic when multiple antiques experts have gathered to try and define the word antique. A few experts tend to look more at high design and style whenever deeming an item antique. They view antiques as “masterpieces” of style and of merely the best quality. For this evaluation, anything from primitive furniture of all ages to faceless Amish rag dolls coming from the late twentieth century wouldn’t be regarded antique no matter the scarcity of the object. A number of other experts don’t agree with these people. A great way to view it is the dividing line drawn in which styles totally changed from the old-fashioned look toward the contemporary. Hemlines were reduced and simplified, and Art Deco design was the extremely popular throughout the 1920s stepping into the 1930s. These types of fashion and design developments having a modern curve, and the like within this transitional period, offer a stark distinction into the elegant nature of Victorian, Edwardian, as well as Colonial influences observed in the past decades to hundreds of years. Bearing this in mind, one perspective is to see things made just before 1920 as antiques and newer items as “collectibles.” The antique scale slides with regards to the real age of these items as we go on to move ahead through the calendar, however. The moment 2020 comes around these objects will be regarded as antiques by the U.S. Customs Service definition thus broadly adopted in the field. How Must You Describe Objects You’re Selling? Perhaps even the most honest sellers having the best of intentions can do a miscalculation occasionally to describe their wares. However when sellers use terms improperly, particularly if they do it over and over again, those blunders could quickly ruin their integrity. For this reason alone it’s best if you try to obtain the facts straight. Distinguishing something that is actually a collectible – anything under a hundred years old – as an antique makes smart buyers feel as if you’re simply wanting to pull one over to them. It may also cause you to look ignorant as to what you’re selling, or much worse, dishonest. If the item is clearly newer than a hundred years in age, simply refer to it as a collectible. In case you actually think that a product is over a hundred years in age after doing research, then it’s completely fine to refer to it as an antique. A few online selling sites have got particular groups to adhere to which differentiate antiques from collectibles. You’ll do better by having it right, because potential clients will examine those classes for what they’re searching for apart from depending on keyword searches. Even when you are marketing in an antique shopping mall or in a show, marking and representing your things precisely helps you well. Clients will return over and over again to find out what’s new within your booth should you do your very best to provide them great product which has been carefully investigated and properly sold. Types of Antiques As stated over and over before, antiques are items of old things like home furniture and jewelry or uncommon things which have been stored for over a hundred years old. When you are planning to enter antique collecting, then you’ll discover that this is an incredibly satisfying exercise where you can find a number of classes involved. You’ll certainly discover a rare item or thing at numerous avenues such as antique art galleries or at local flea markets and car boot sales and prior to going out and begin purchasing all that hits your curiosity you must first know the types of antique. Generally, antiques are things that where possible over a century old while they’re recognized for being rare, incredible and valuable. Here are a few types of antique items: Antique Furniture 183-144-190-Rosewood-Rococo-Parlor-set-Laminated-Pierced-carved-sofa-74in-long-50in.-Tall-by-Meeks-Stanton-Hall-patt.jpg An antique furniture is a valuable interior decorations of old age. Frequently its age, uniqueness, condition, utility, or any other unique features makes a furniture piece appealing as a collectors’ item, and so called an “antique”. Antique furniture might provide the body of a human (like seating or beds), offer storage space, or carry items on horizontal surfaces on top of the ground. Storage furniture (which frequently employs doors, compartments, as well as shelves) is utilized to carry or contain little items like tools, clothes, books, as well as home items. Furniture could be a product of creative style and it is regarded a type of decorative art. Besides furniture’s useful function, it could function a emblematic or religious purpose. Domestic furniture functions to produce, along with furnishings like clocks and lighting, comfy and convenient interior spots. Furniture can be created from numerous materials, such as steel, plastic, as well as wood. Cabinets and cupboard making are terms for the set of skills utilized in the constructing of furniture. Antique Jewelry IMG0539-copy Antique jewellery is jewellery which has hit an age of a hundred years or even more which makes it a witness of history. It’s commonly employed for second hand jewelry and for jewellery produced in earlier (style-)periods and not always pre-worn jewellery. It isn’t a dequalifying designation as numerous items of antique jewellery usually feature fine craftsmanship and superior quality gemstones, and also one-of-a-kind items. Antique jewellery consists of numerous years or eras. All of them has numerous different styles. These periods can include Early Victorian, Georgian, Mid-Victorian, Late Victorian, Crafts and arts era, Edwardian, Art Nouveau, Retro and Art Deco. Throughout the years it was royals who requested and set trends for the various fashions obediently accompanied by the upper class and bourgeoisie. The church too was a vitally important commissioner, even though more for silversmiths compared to goldsmiths. Antique Clocks maxresdefault Just as the name suggests, this object refers to mechanical clocks which were made over a hundred years ago. However, mechanical clocks have carried on to be made well into the twentieth century and still being manufactured these days. It must be observed that the majority of mechanical clocks which have been made over the past a hundred years, example the ones that aren’t antique, have been produced in a factory employing mass production methods. Mechanical antique clocks are available in many forms, both ground standing grandfather (longcase) clocks, wall dangling clocks, rack and mantle clocks as well as mount or table clocks. Antique clocks could be run both by weights working under gravity, or perhaps by springs. The two weight driven clocks as well as spring driven clocks are often wrapped by a key or crank (key) over the dial in front of the clock. Antique Kitchenware vintage-antique-kitchen-utensils-l-3ad44d78a72aee02 Aged or historic kitchen items go by many different labels from “culinary antiques” to “vintage kitchenalia”. No matter whether they’re ancient or mid-20th century “retro”, nearly all old cooking, serving, as well as storage objects attract a few collector wherever. Numerous items are simple to recognize, although not all. It’s not at all times obvious if the simple box or pot or implement had a specific title or perhaps a specific use. A set of jars (earthenware, stoneware, glass from the twentieth century) as well as boxes (wooden, tin) was required whenever food was kept at home and groceries were offered unwrapped. Homes got various beaters, paddles, as well as bats – a number of them called beetles – for functions from tenderising meat to working butter to pumping the dirt away from clothes. Basic wooden boards, mixing sticks, and big spoons had a number of uses. At times kitchen collectibles are classified based on what they’re made from. Wood (treen), copper, tinware, stoneware and many others. . Edward VIII (Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David; 23 June 1894 – 28 May 1972) was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Empire and Emperor of India from 20 January 1936 until his abdication in December of the same year.[a] Edward was born during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George V and Queen Mary. He was created Prince of Wales on his 16th birthday, seven weeks after his father succeeded as king. As a young man, Edward served in the British Army during the First World War and undertook several overseas tours on behalf of his father. While Prince of Wales, he engaged in a series of sexual affairs that worried both his father and then-British prime minister Stanley Baldwin. Upon his father's death in 1936, Edward became the second monarch of the House of Windsor. The new king showed impatience with court protocol, and caused concern among politicians by his apparent disregard for established constitutional conventions. Only months into his reign, a constitutional crisis was caused by his proposal to marry Wallis Simpson, an American who had divorced her first husband and was seeking a divorce from her second. The prime ministers of the United Kingdom and the Dominions opposed the marriage, arguing a divorced woman with two living ex-husbands was politically and socially unacceptable as a prospective queen consort. Additionally, such a marriage would have conflicted with Edward's status as titular head of the Church of England, which, at the time, disapproved of remarriage after divorce if a former spouse was still alive. Edward knew the Baldwin government would resign if the marriage went ahead, which could have forced a general election and would have ruined his status as a politically neutral constitutional monarch. When it became apparent he could not marry Simpson and remain on the throne, he abdicated. He was succeeded by his younger brother, George VI. With a reign of 326 days, Edward was one of the shortest-reigning British monarchs to date. After his abdication, Edward was created Duke of Windsor. He married Simpson in France on 3 June 1937, after her second divorce became final. Later that year, the couple toured Nazi Germany, which fed rumours that he was a Nazi sympathiser. During the Second World War, Edward was at first stationed with the British Military Mission to France but after the fall of France was appointed Governor of the Bahamas. After the war, Edward spent the rest of his life in France. He and Wallis remained married until his death in 1972; they had no children. Early life Edward (second from left) with his father and younger siblings (Albert and Mary), photograph by his grandmother Alexandra, 1899 Edward was born on 23 June 1894 at White Lodge, Richmond Park, on the outskirts of London during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria.[2] He was the eldest son of the Duke and Duchess of York (later King George V and Queen Mary). His father was the son of the Prince and Princess of Wales (later King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra). His mother was the eldest daughter of Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge and Francis, Duke of Teck. At the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind his grandfather and father. He was baptised Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David in the Green Drawing Room of White Lodge on 16 July 1894 by Edward White Benson, Archbishop of Canterbury.[b] The name "Edward" was chosen in honour of Edward's late uncle Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, who was known within the family as "Eddy" (Edward being among his given names); "Albert" was included at the behest of Queen Victoria for her late husband Albert, Prince Consort; "Christian" was in honour of his great-grandfather King Christian IX of Denmark; and the last four names – George, Andrew, Patrick and David – came from, respectively, the patron saints of England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales.[4] He was always known to his family and close friends by his last given name, David.[5] As was common practice with upper-class children of the time, Edward and his younger siblings were brought up by nannies rather than directly by their parents. One of Edward's early nannies often abused him by pinching him before he was due to be presented to his parents. His subsequent crying and wailing would lead the Duke and Duchess to send him and the nanny away.[6] The nanny was discharged after her mistreatment of the children was discovered, and she was replaced by Charlotte Bill.[7] Edward's father, though a harsh disciplinarian,[8] was demonstratively affectionate,[9] and his mother displayed a frolicsome side with her children that belied her austere public image. She was amused by the children making tadpoles on toast for their French master as a prank,[10] and encouraged them to confide in her.[11] Education Edward as a midshipman on board HMS Hindustan, 1910 Initially, Edward was tutored at home by Helen Bricka. When his parents travelled the British Empire for almost nine months following the death of Queen Victoria in 1901, young Edward and his siblings stayed in Britain with their grandparents, Queen Alexandra and King Edward VII, who showered their grandchildren with affection. Upon his parents' return, Edward was placed under the care of two men, Frederick Finch and Henry Hansell, who virtually brought up Edward and his brothers and sister for their remaining nursery years.[12] Edward was kept under the strict tutorship of Hansell until almost thirteen years old. Private tutors taught him German and French.[13] Edward took the examination to enter the Royal Naval College, Osborne, and began there in 1907. Hansell had wanted Edward to enter school earlier, but the prince's father had disagreed.[14] Following two years at Osborne College, which he did not enjoy, Edward moved on to the Royal Naval College at Dartmouth. A course of two years, followed by entry into the Royal Navy, was planned.[15] Edward automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay on 6 May 1910 when his father ascended the throne as George V on the death of Edward VII. He was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester a month later on 23 June 1910, his 16th birthday.[16] Preparations for his future as king began in earnest. He was withdrawn from his naval course before his formal graduation, served as midshipman for three months aboard the battleship Hindustan, then immediately entered Magdalen College, Oxford, for which, in the opinion of his biographers, he was underprepared intellectually.[15] A keen horseman, he learned how to play polo with the university club.[17] He left Oxford after eight terms, without any academic qualifications.[15] Prince of Wales Edward was officially invested as Prince of Wales in a special ceremony at Caernarfon Castle on 13 July 1911.[18] The investiture took place in Wales, at the instigation of the Welsh politician David Lloyd George, Constable of the Castle and Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Liberal government.[19] Lloyd George invented a rather fanciful ceremony in the style of a Welsh pageant, and coached Edward to speak a few words in Welsh.[20] Edward in August 1915, during the First World War When the First World War broke out in 1914, Edward had reached the minimum age for active service and was keen to participate.[21] He had joined the Grenadier Guards in June 1914, and although Edward was willing to serve on the front lines, Secretary of State for War Lord Kitchener refused to allow it, citing the immense harm that would occur if the heir apparent to the throne were captured by the enemy.[22] Despite this, Edward witnessed trench warfare first-hand and visited the front line as often as he could, for which he was awarded the Military Cross in 1916. His role in the war, although limited, made him popular among veterans of the conflict.[23] He undertook his first military flight in 1918, and later gained a pilot's licence.[24] Edward's youngest brother, Prince John, died at the age of 13 on 18 January 1919 after a severe epileptic seizure.[25] Edward, who was 11 years older than John and had hardly known him, saw his death as "little more than a regrettable nuisance".[26] He wrote to his mistress of the time that "[he had] told [her] all about that little brother, and how he was an epileptic. [John]'s been practically shut up for the last two years anyhow, so no one has ever seen him except the family, and then only once or twice a year. This poor boy had become more of an animal than anything else." He also wrote an insensitive letter to his mother which has since been lost.[27] She did not reply, but he felt compelled to write her an apology, in which he stated: "I feel such a cold hearted and unsympathetic swine for writing all that I did ... No one can realize more than you how little poor Johnnie meant to me who hardly knew him ... I feel so much for you, darling Mama, who was his mother."[26] Edward in Ashburton, New Zealand, with returned servicemen, 1920 Throughout the 1920s, Edward, as the Prince of Wales, represented his father at home and abroad on many occasions. His rank, travels, good looks, and unmarried status gained him much public attention. At the height of his popularity, he was the most photographed celebrity of his time and he set men's fashion.[28] During his 1924 visit to the United States, Men's Wear magazine observed, "The average young man in America is more interested in the clothes of the Prince of Wales than in any other individual on earth."[29] Edward visited poverty-stricken areas of Britain,[30] and undertook 16 tours to various parts of the Empire between 1919 and 1935. On a tour of Canada in 1919, he acquired the Bedingfield ranch, near Pekisko, Alberta.[31] He escaped unharmed when the train he was riding in during a tour of Australia was derailed outside Perth in 1920.[32] Edward and his staff wearing kimono (yukata) in Japan, 1922 His November 1921 visit to India came during the non-cooperation movement protests for Indian self-rule, and was marked by riots in Bombay. In 1929 Sir Alexander Leith, a leading Conservative in the north of England, persuaded him to make a three-day visit to the County Durham and Northumberland coalfields, where there was much unemployment.[33] From January to April 1931, the Prince of Wales and his brother Prince George travelled 18,000 miles (29,000 km) on a tour of South America, steaming out on the ocean liner Oropesa,[34] and returning via Paris and an Imperial Airways flight from Paris–Le Bourget Airport that landed specially in Windsor Great Park.[35][36] Though widely travelled, Edward shared a widely held racial prejudice against foreigners and many of the Empire's subjects, believing that whites were inherently superior.[37] In 1920, on his visit to Australia, he wrote of Indigenous Australians: "they are the most revolting form of living creatures I've ever seen!! They are the lowest known form of human beings & are the nearest thing to monkeys."[38] In 1919, Edward agreed to be president of the organising committee for the proposed British Empire Exhibition at Wembley Park, Middlesex. He wished the Exhibition to include "a great national sports ground", and so played a part in the creation of Wembley Stadium.[39] Romances Portrait by Reginald Grenville Eves, c. 1920 By 1917, Edward liked to spend time partying in Paris while he was on leave from his regiment on the Western Front. He was introduced to Parisian courtesan Marguerite Alibert, with whom he became infatuated. He wrote her candid letters, which she kept. After about a year, Edward broke off the affair. In 1923, Alibert was acquitted in a spectacular murder trial after she shot her husband in the Savoy Hotel. Desperate efforts were made by the Royal Household to ensure that Edward's name was not mentioned in connection with the trial or Alibert.[40] Edward's womanising and reckless behaviour during the 1920s and 1930s worried Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, King George V, and those close to the prince. George V was disappointed by his son's failure to settle down in life, disgusted by his affairs with married women, and reluctant to see him inherit the Crown. "After I am dead," George said, "the boy will ruin himself in twelve months."[41] George V favoured his second son Albert ("Bertie") and Albert's daughter Elizabeth ("Lilibet"), later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth II respectively. He told a courtier, "I pray to God that my eldest son will never marry and have children, and that nothing will come between Bertie and Lilibet and the throne."[42] In 1929, Time magazine reported that Edward teased Albert's wife, also named Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother), by calling her "Queen Elizabeth". The magazine asked if "she did not sometimes wonder how much truth there is in the story that he once said he would renounce his rights upon the death of George V – which would make her nickname come true".[43] Thelma Furness and the Prince of Wales in 1932 In 1930, George V gave Edward the lease of Fort Belvedere in Windsor Great Park.[44] There, he continued his relationships with a series of married women, including Freda Dudley Ward and Lady Furness, the American wife of a British peer, who introduced the prince to her friend and fellow American Wallis Simpson. Simpson had divorced her first husband, U.S. Navy officer Win Spencer, in 1927. Her second husband, Ernest Simpson, was a British-American businessman. Wallis Simpson and the Prince of Wales, it is generally accepted, became lovers, while Lady Furness travelled abroad, although the prince adamantly insisted to his father that he was not having an affair with her and that it was not appropriate to describe her as his mistress.[45] Edward's relationship with Simpson, however, further weakened his poor relationship with his father. Although his parents met Simpson at Buckingham Palace in 1935,[46] they later refused to receive her.[47] Edward's affair with an American divorcée led to such grave concern that the couple were followed by members of the Metropolitan Police Special Branch, who examined in secret the nature of their relationship. An undated report detailed a visit by the couple to an antique shop, where the proprietor later noted "that the lady seemed to have POW [Prince of Wales] completely under her thumb."[48] The prospect of having an American divorcée with a questionable past having such sway over the heir apparent led to anxiety among government and establishment figures.[49] Reign Edward VIII surrounded by heralds of the College of Arms prior to his only State Opening of Parliament, 3 November 1936 George V died on 20 January 1936, and Edward ascended the throne as Edward VIII. The next day, accompanied by Simpson, he broke with custom by watching the proclamation of his own accession from a window of St James's Palace.[50] He became the first monarch of the British Empire to fly in an aircraft when he flew from Sandringham to London for his Accession Council.[13] Edward caused unease in government circles with actions that were interpreted as interference in political matters. His comment during a tour of depressed villages in South Wales that "something must be done"[13] for the unemployed coal miners was seen as an attempt to guide government policy, though he had not proposed any remedy or change in policy. Government ministers were reluctant to send confidential documents and state papers to Fort Belvedere, because it was clear that Edward was paying little attention to them, and it was feared that Simpson and other house guests might read them, improperly or inadvertently revealing government secrets.[51] Edward's unorthodox approach to his role also extended to the coinage that bore his image. He broke with the tradition that the profile portrait of each successive monarch faced in the direction opposite to that of his or her predecessor. Edward insisted that he face left (as his father had done),[52] to show the parting in his hair.[53] Only a handful of test coins were struck before the abdication, and all are very rare.[54] When George VI succeeded to the throne he also faced left to maintain the tradition by suggesting that, had any further coins been minted featuring Edward's portrait, they would have shown him facing right.[55] Left-facing coinage portrait of Edward VIII On 16 July 1936, Jerome Bannigan, alias George Andrew McMahon, produced a loaded revolver as Edward rode on horseback at Constitution Hill, near Buckingham Palace. Police spotted the gun and pounced on him; he was quickly arrested. At Bannigan's trial, he alleged that "a foreign power" had approached him to kill Edward, that he had informed MI5 of the plan, and that he was merely seeing the plan through to help MI5 catch the real culprits. The court rejected the claims and sent him to jail for a year for "intent to alarm".[56] It is now thought that Bannigan had indeed been in contact with MI5, but the veracity of the remainder of his claims remains debatable.[57] In August and September, Edward and Simpson cruised the Eastern Mediterranean on the steam yacht Nahlin. By October it was becoming clear that the new king planned to marry Simpson, especially when divorce proceedings between the Simpsons were brought at Ipswich Assizes.[58] Although gossip about his affair was widespread in the United States, the British media kept silent voluntarily, and the general public knew nothing until early December.[59] Abdication Main article: Abdication of Edward VIII Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson on their Mediterranean holiday, 1936 On 16 November 1936, Edward invited Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin to Buckingham Palace and expressed his desire to marry Simpson when she became free to remarry. Baldwin informed him that his subjects would deem the marriage morally unacceptable, largely because remarriage after divorce was opposed by the Church of England, and the people would not tolerate Simpson as queen.[60] As king, Edward was the titular head of the Church, and the clergy expected him to support the Church's teachings. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Cosmo Gordon Lang, was vocal in insisting that Edward must go.[61] Edward proposed an alternative solution of a morganatic marriage, in which he would remain king but Simpson would not become queen consort. She would enjoy some lesser title instead, and any children they might have would not inherit the throne. This was supported by senior politician Winston Churchill in principle, and some historians suggest that he conceived the plan.[61] In any event, it was ultimately rejected by the British Cabinet[62] as well as other Dominion governments.[63] The other governments' views were sought pursuant to the Statute of Westminster 1931, which provided in part that "any alteration in the law touching the Succession to the Throne or the Royal Style and Titles shall hereafter require the assent as well of the Parliaments of all the Dominions as of the Parliament of the United Kingdom."[64] The Prime Ministers of Australia (Joseph Lyons), Canada (Mackenzie King) and South Africa (J. B. M. Hertzog) made clear their opposition to the king marrying a divorcée;[65] their Irish counterpart (Éamon de Valera) expressed indifference and detachment, while the Prime Minister of New Zealand (Michael Joseph Savage), having never heard of Simpson before, vacillated in disbelief.[66] Faced with this opposition, Edward at first responded that there were "not many people in Australia" and their opinion did not matter.[67] Cypher on a postbox erected during his short reign Edward informed Baldwin that he would abdicate if he could not marry Simpson. Baldwin then presented Edward with three options: give up the idea of marriage; marry against his ministers' wishes; or abdicate.[68] It was clear that Edward was not prepared to give up Simpson, and he knew that if he married against the advice of his ministers, he would cause the government to resign, prompting a constitutional crisis.[69] He chose to abdicate.[70] Edward duly signed the instruments of abdication[c] at Fort Belvedere on 10 December 1936 in the presence of his younger brothers: Prince Albert, Duke of York, next in line for the throne; Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester; and Prince George, Duke of Kent.[71] The document included these words: "declare my irrevocable determination to renounce the throne for myself and for my descendants and my desire that effect should be given to this instrument of abdication immediately".[72] The next day, the last act of his reign was the royal assent to His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936. As required by the Statute of Westminster, all the Dominions had already consented to the abdication.[1] On the night of 11 December 1936, Edward, now reverted to the title and style of a prince, explained his decision to abdicate in a worldwide BBC radio broadcast. He said, "I have found it impossible to carry the heavy burden of responsibility and to discharge my duties as king as I would wish to do without the help and support of the woman I love." He added that the "decision was mine and mine alone ... The other person most nearly concerned has tried up to the last to persuade me to take a different course".[73] Edward departed Britain for Austria the following day; he was unable to join Simpson until her divorce became absolute, several months later.[74] His brother, the Duke of York, succeeded to the throne as George VI. Accordingly, George VI's elder daughter, Princess Elizabeth, became heir presumptive. Duke of Windsor On 12 December 1936, at the accession meeting of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, George VI announced his intention to make his brother the "Duke of Windsor" with the style of Royal Highness.[75] He wanted this to be the first act of his reign, although the formal documents were not signed until 8 March the following year. During the interim, Edward was known as the Duke of Windsor. George VI's decision to create Edward a royal duke ensured that he could neither stand for election to the British House of Commons nor speak on political subjects in the House of Lords.[76] Letters Patent dated 27 May 1937 re-conferred the "title, style, or attribute of Royal Highness" upon the Duke, but specifically stated that "his wife and descendants, if any, shall not hold said title or attribute". Some British ministers advised that the reconfirmation was unnecessary since Edward had retained the style automatically, and further that Simpson would automatically obtain the rank of wife of a prince with the style Her Royal Highness; others maintained that he had lost all royal rank and should no longer carry any royal title or style as an abdicated king, and be referred to simply as "Mr Edward Windsor". On 14 April 1937, Attorney General Sir Donald Somervell submitted to Home Secretary Sir John Simon a memorandum summarising the views of Lord Advocate T. M. Cooper, Parliamentary Counsel Sir Granville Ram, and himself: We incline to the view that on his abdication the Duke of Windsor could not have claimed the right to be described as a Royal Highness. In other words, no reasonable objection could have been taken if the King had decided that his exclusion from the lineal succession excluded him from the right to this title as conferred by the existing Letters Patent. The question however has to be considered on the basis of the fact that, for reasons which are readily understandable, he with the express approval of His Majesty enjoys this title and has been referred to as a Royal Highness on a formal occasion and in formal documents. In the light of precedent it seems clear that the wife of a Royal Highness enjoys the same title unless some appropriate express step can be and is taken to deprive her of it. We came to the conclusion that the wife could not claim this right on any legal basis. The right to use this style or title, in our view, is within the prerogative of His Majesty and he has the power to regulate it by Letters Patent generally or in particular circumstances.[77] Château de Candé, the Windsors' wedding venue The Duke married Simpson, who had changed her name by deed poll to Wallis Warfield (her birth surname), in a private ceremony on 3 June 1937, at Château de Candé, near Tours, France. When the Church of England refused to sanction the union, a County Durham clergyman, the Reverend Robert Anderson Jardine (Vicar of St Paul's, Darlington), offered to perform the ceremony, and the Duke accepted. George VI forbade members of the royal family to attend,[78] to the lasting resentment of the Duke and Duchess of Windsor. Edward had particularly wanted his brothers the dukes of Gloucester and Kent and his second cousin Lord Louis Mountbatten to attend the ceremony.[79] The denial of the style Royal Highness to the Duchess of Windsor caused further conflict, as did the financial settlement. The Government declined to include the Duke or Duchess on the Civil List, and the Duke's allowance was paid personally by George VI. The Duke compromised his position with his brother by concealing the extent of his financial worth when they informally agreed on the amount of the allowance. Edward's wealth had accumulated from the revenues of the Duchy of Cornwall paid to him as Prince of Wales and ordinarily at the disposal of an incoming king. George VI also paid Edward for Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle, which were Edward's personal property, inherited from his father and thus did not automatically pass to George VI on his accession.[80] Edward received approximately £300,000 (equivalent to between £21 million and £140 million in 2021[81]) for both residences which was paid to him in yearly instalments. In the early days of George VI's reign the Duke telephoned daily, importuning for money and urging that the Duchess be granted the style of Royal Highness, until the harassed king ordered that the calls not be put through.[82] Relations between the Duke of Windsor and the rest of the royal family were strained for decades. The Duke had assumed that he would settle in Britain after a year or two of exile in France. King George VI (with the support of Queen Mary and his wife Queen Elizabeth) threatened to cut off Edward's allowance if he returned to Britain without an invitation.[80] Edward became embittered against his mother, Queen Mary, writing to her in 1939: "[your last letter][d] destroy[ed] the last vestige of feeling I had left for you ... [and has] made further normal correspondence between us impossible."[83] Duke and Duchess of Windsor in Germany, October 1937 Edward reviewing SS guards with Robert Ley The Duke and Duchess meeting Adolf Hitler at Berchtesgaden In October 1937, the Duke and Duchess visited Nazi Germany, against the advice of the British government, and met Adolf Hitler at his Berghof retreat in Bavaria. The visit was much publicised by the German media. During the visit the Duke gave full Nazi salutes.[84] In Germany, "they were treated like royalty ... members of the aristocracy would bow and curtsy towards her, and she was treated with all the dignity and status that the duke always wanted", according to royal biographer Andrew Morton in a 2016 BBC interview.[85] The former Austrian ambassador, Count Albert von Mensdorff-Pouilly-Dietrichstein, who was also a second cousin once removed and friend of George V, believed that Edward favoured German fascism as a bulwark against communism, and even that he initially favoured an alliance with Germany.[86] According to the Duke of Windsor, the experience of "the unending scenes of horror"[87] during the First World War led him to support appeasement. Hitler considered Edward to be friendly towards Germany and thought that Anglo-German relations could have been improved through Edward if it were not for the abdication. Albert Speer quoted Hitler directly: "I am certain through him permanent friendly relations could have been achieved. If he had stayed, everything would have been different. His abdication was a severe loss for us."[88] The Duke and Duchess settled in Paris, leasing a mansion in Boulevard Suchet [fr] from late 1938.[89] Second World War In May 1939, the Duke was commissioned by NBC to give a radio broadcast[90] (his first since abdicating) during a visit to the First World War battlefields of Verdun. In it he appealed for peace, saying "I am deeply conscious of the presence of the great company of the dead, and I am convinced that could they make their voices heard they would be with me in what I am about to say. I speak simply as a soldier of the Last War whose most earnest prayer it is that such cruel and destructive madness shall never again overtake mankind. There is no land whose people want war." The broadcast was heard across the world by millions.[91][92] It was widely regarded as supporting appeasement,[93] and the BBC refused to broadcast it.[90] It was broadcast outside the United States on shortwave radio[94] and was reported in full by British broadsheet newspapers.[95] On the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, the Duke and Duchess were brought back to Britain by Louis Mountbatten on board HMS Kelly, and Edward, although he held the rank of field marshal, was made a major-general attached to the British Military Mission in France.[13] In February 1940, the German ambassador in The Hague, Count Julius von Zech-Burkersroda, claimed that the Duke had leaked the Allied war plans for the defence of Belgium,[96] which the Duke later denied.[97] When Germany invaded the north of France in May 1940, the Windsors fled south, first to Biarritz, then in June to Francoist Spain. In July the pair moved to Portugal, where they lived at first in the home of Ricardo Espírito Santo, a Portuguese banker with both British and German contacts.[98] Under the code name Operation Willi, Nazi agents, principally Walter Schellenberg, plotted unsuccessfully to persuade the Duke to leave Portugal and return to Spain, kidnapping him if necessary.[99] Lord Caldecote wrote a warning to Winston Churchill, who by this point was prime minister, that "[the Duke] is well-known to be pro-Nazi and he may become a centre of intrigue."[100] Churchill threatened the Duke with a court-martial if he did not return to British soil.[101] In July 1940, Edward was appointed governor of the Bahamas. The Duke and Duchess left Lisbon on 1 August aboard the American Export Lines steamship Excalibur, which was specially diverted from its usual direct course to New York City so that they could be dropped off at Bermuda on the 9th.[102] They left Bermuda for Nassau on the Canadian National Steamship Company vessel Lady Somers on 15 August, arriving two days later.[103] The Duke did not enjoy being governor and privately referred to the islands as "a third-class British colony".[104] The British Foreign Office strenuously objected when the Duke and Duchess planned to cruise aboard a yacht belonging to Swedish magnate Axel Wenner-Gren, whom British and American intelligence wrongly believed to be a close friend of Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring.[105] The Duke was praised for his efforts to combat poverty on the islands, although he was as contemptuous of the Bahamians as he was of most non-white peoples of the Empire. He said of Étienne Dupuch, the editor of the Nassau Daily Tribune: "It must be remembered that Dupuch is more than half Negro, and due to the peculiar mentality of this Race, they seem unable to rise to prominence without losing their equilibrium."[106] He was praised, even by Dupuch, for his resolution of civil unrest over low wages in Nassau in 1942, even though he blamed the trouble on "mischief makers – communists" and "men of Central European Jewish descent, who had secured jobs as a pretext for obtaining a deferment of draft".[107] He resigned from the post on 16 March 1945.[13] Many historians have suggested that Adolf Hitler was prepared to reinstate Edward as king in the hope of establishing a fascist puppet government in Britain after Operation Sea Lion.[108] It is widely believed that the Duke and Duchess sympathised with fascism before and during the Second World War, and were moved to the Bahamas to minimise their opportunities to act on those feelings. In 1940 he said: "In the past 10 years Germany has totally reorganised the order of its society ... Countries which were unwilling to accept such a reorganisation of society and its concomitant sacrifices should direct their policies accordingly."[109] During the occupation of France, the Duke asked the German Wehrmacht forces to place guards at his Paris and Riviera homes; they did so.[110] In December 1940, the Duke gave Fulton Oursler of Liberty magazine an interview at Government House in Nassau. Oursler conveyed its content to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in a private meeting at the White House on 23 December 1940.[111] The interview was published on 22 March 1941 and in it the Duke was reported to have said that "Hitler was the right and logical leader of the German people" and that the time was coming for President Roosevelt to mediate a peace settlement. The Duke protested that he had been misquoted and misinterpreted.[112] The Allies became sufficiently disturbed by German plots revolving around the Duke that President Roosevelt ordered covert surveillance of the Duke and Duchess when they visited Palm Beach, Florida, in April 1941. Duke Carl Alexander of Württemberg (then a monk in an American monastery) had told the Federal Bureau of Investigation that the Duchess had slept with the German ambassador in London, Joachim von Ribbentrop, in 1936; had remained in constant contact with him; and had continued to leak secrets.[113] Author Charles Higham claimed that Anthony Blunt, an MI5 agent and Soviet spy, acting on orders from the British royal family, made a successful secret trip to Schloss Friedrichshof in Allied-occupied Germany towards the end of the war to retrieve sensitive letters between the Duke of Windsor and Adolf Hitler and other leading Nazis.[114] What is certain is that George VI sent the Royal Librarian, Owen Morshead, accompanied by Blunt, then working part-time in the Royal Library as well as for British intelligence, to Friedrichshof in March 1945 to secure papers relating to the German Empress Victoria, the eldest child of Queen Victoria. Looters had stolen part of the castle's archive, including surviving letters between daughter and mother, as well as other valuables, some of which were recovered in Chicago after the war. The papers rescued by Morshead and Blunt, and those returned by the American authorities from Chicago, were deposited in the Royal Archives.[115] In the late 1950s, documents recovered by U.S. troops in Marburg, Germany, in May 1945, since titled the Marburg Files, were published following more than a decade of suppression, enhancing theories of the Duke's sympathies for Nazi ideologies.[116][117] After the war, the Duke admitted in his memoirs that he admired the Germans, but he denied being pro-Nazi. Of Hitler he wrote: "[the] Führer struck me as a somewhat ridiculous figure, with his theatrical posturings and his bombastic pretensions."[118] In the 1950s, journalist Frank Giles heard the Duke blame British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden for helping to "precipitate the war through his treatment of Mussolini ... that's what [Eden] did, he helped to bring on the war ... and of course Roosevelt and the Jews".[119] During the 1960s the Duke said privately to a friend, Patrick Balfour, 3rd Baron Kinross, "I never thought Hitler was such a bad chap."[120] Later life The Duke of Windsor in 1945 Clementine (far left) and Winston Churchill with the Duke of Windsor on the French Riviera in 1948 At the end of the war, the couple returned to France and spent the remainder of their lives essentially in retirement as the Duke never held another official role. Correspondence between the Duke and Kenneth de Courcy, dated between 1946 and 1949, emerged in a U.S. library in 2009. The letters suggest a scheme where the Duke would return to England and place himself in a position for a possible regency. The health of George VI was failing and de Courcy was concerned about the influence of the Mountbatten family over the young Princess Elizabeth. De Courcy suggested the Duke buy a working agricultural estate within an easy drive of London in order to gain favour with the British public and make himself available should the King become incapacitated. The Duke, however, hesitated and the King recovered from his surgery.[121] The Duke's allowance was supplemented by government favours and illegal currency trading.[13][122][123] The City of Paris provided the Duke with a house at 4 route du Champ d'Entraînement, on the Neuilly-sur-Seine side of the Bois de Boulogne, for a nominal rent.[124] The French government also exempted him from paying income tax,[122][125] and the couple were able to buy goods duty-free through the British embassy and the military commissary.[125] In 1952, they bought and renovated a weekend country retreat, Le Moulin de la Tuilerie at Gif-sur-Yvette, the only property the couple ever owned themselves.[126] In 1951, the Duke had produced a ghost-written memoir, A King's Story, in which he expressed disagreement with liberal politics.[19] The royalties from the book added to their income.[122] The Duke and Duchess effectively took on the role of celebrities and were regarded as part of café society in the 1950s and 1960s. They hosted parties and shuttled between Paris and New York; Gore Vidal, who met the Windsors socially, reported on the vacuity of the Duke's conversation.[127] The couple doted on the pug dogs they kept.[128] In June 1953, instead of attending the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, his niece, in London, the Duke and Duchess watched the ceremony on television in Paris. The Duke said that it was contrary to precedent for a Sovereign or former Sovereign to attend any coronation of another. He was paid to write articles on the ceremony for the Sunday Express and Woman's Home Companion, as well as a short book, The Crown and the People, 1902–1953.[129] U.S. President Richard Nixon and the Duke and Duchess of Windsor in 1970 In 1955, they visited President Dwight D. Eisenhower at the White House. The couple appeared on Edward R. Murrow's television-interview show Person to Person in 1956,[130] and in a 50-minute BBC television interview in 1970. On 4 April of that year President Richard Nixon invited them as guests of honour to a dinner at the White House with Chief Justice Warren E. Burger, Charles Lindbergh, Alice Roosevelt Longworth, Arnold Palmer, George H. W. Bush, and Frank Borman.[131][132] The royal family never fully accepted the Duchess. Queen Mary refused to receive her formally. However, Edward sometimes met his mother and his brother, George VI; he attended George's funeral in 1952. Queen Mary remained angry with Edward and indignant over his marriage to Wallis: "To give up all this for that", she said.[133] In 1965, the Duke and Duchess returned to London. They were visited by Elizabeth II, his sister-in-law Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent, and his sister Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood. A week later, the Princess Royal died, and they attended her memorial service. In 1967, they joined the royal family for the centenary of Queen Mary's birth. The last royal ceremony the Duke attended was the funeral of Princess Marina in 1968.[134] He declined an invitation from Elizabeth II to attend the investiture of the Prince of Wales in 1969, replying that Prince Charles would not want his "aged great-uncle" there.[135] In the 1960s, the Duke's health deteriorated. Michael E. DeBakey operated on him in Houston for an aneurysm of the abdominal aorta in December 1964, and Sir Stewart Duke-Elder treated a detached retina in his left eye in February 1965. In late 1971, the Duke, who was a smoker from an early age, was diagnosed with throat cancer and underwent cobalt therapy. On 18 May 1972, Queen Elizabeth II visited the Duke and Duchess of Windsor while on a state visit to France; she spoke with the Duke for fifteen minutes, but only the Duchess appeared with the royal party for a photocall as the Duke was too ill.[136] Death and legacy Edward's grave at the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore On 28 May 1972, ten days after the Queen's visit, the Duke died at his home in Paris, less than a month before his 78th birthday. His body was returned to Britain, lying in state at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. The funeral service took place in the chapel on 5 June in the presence of the Queen, the royal family, and the Duchess of Windsor, who stayed at Buckingham Palace during her visit. He was buried in the Royal Burial Ground behind the Royal Mausoleum of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert at Frogmore.[137] Until a 1965 agreement with the Queen, the Duke and Duchess had planned for a burial in a cemetery plot they had purchased at Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore, where the Duchess's father was interred.[138] Frail, and suffering increasingly from dementia, the Duchess died in 1986, and was buried alongside her husband.[139] In the view of historians, such as Philip Williamson writing in 2007, the popular perception in the 21st century that the abdication was driven by politics rather than religious morality is false and arises because divorce has become much more common and socially acceptable. To modern sensibilities, the religious restrictions that prevented Edward from continuing as king while planning to marry Simpson "seem, wrongly, to provide insufficient explanation" for his abdication.[140] Honours and arms Royal Standard of the Duke of Windsor Honours Portrait of Edward in the robes of the Order of the Garter by Arthur Stockdale Cope, 1912 British Commonwealth and Empire honours KG: Royal Knight of the Garter, 1910[141] MC: Military Cross, 1916[142] GCMG: Grand Master and Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George, 1917[141] GBE: Grand Master and Knight Grand Cross of the British Empire, 1917[141] ADC: Personal aide-de-camp, 3 June 1919[143] GCVO: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, 1920[141] PC: Privy Counsellor, (United Kingdom) 1920[141] GCSI: Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India, 1921[141] GCIE: Knight Grand Commander of the Indian Empire, 1921[141] Royal Victorian Chain, 1921[141] KT: Extra Knight of the Thistle, 1922[141] GCStJ: Bailiff Grand Cross of St John, 12 June 1926[144] KStJ: Knight of Justice of St John, 2 June 1917[145] KP: Knight of St Patrick, 1927[141] PC: Privy Councillor of Canada, 1927[146] GCB: Knight Grand Cross of the Bath, 1936[141] ISO: Companion of the Imperial Service Order, 23 June 1910[147] FRS: Royal Fellow of the Royal Society[141] Foreign honours Grand Duchy of Hesse Knight of the Golden Lion, 23 June 1911[148] Spain Knight of the Golden Fleece, 22 June 1912[149] French Third Republic Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, August 1912[150] Denmark Knight of the Elephant, 17 March 1914[151] Norway Grand Cross of St. Olav, with Collar, 6 April 1914[152] Kingdom of Italy Knight of the Annunciation, 21 June 1915[153] French Third Republic Croix de Guerre, 1915 Russian Empire Knight of St. George, 3rd Class, 1916[154] Thailand Knight of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri, 16 August 1917[155] Kingdom of Romania Order of Michael the Brave, 1st Class, 1918[154] Kingdom of Italy War Merit Cross, 1919 Kingdom of Egypt Grand Cordon of the Order of Mohamed Ali, 1922[154] Sweden Knight of the Seraphim, 12 November 1923[156] Kingdom of Romania Collar of the Order of Carol I, 1924[154] Chile Order of Merit, 1st Class, 1925[154] Bolivia Grand Cross of the Condor of the Andes, 1931[154] Peru Grand Cross of the Sun of Peru, 1931[154] Portugal Grand Cross of the Sash of the Two Orders, 25 April 1931 – during his visit to Lisbon[157] Brazil Grand Cross of the Southern Cross, 1933[154] San Marino Grand Cross of St. Agatha, 1935[154] Military ranks 22 June 1911: Midshipman, Royal Navy[158] 17 March 1913: Lieutenant, Royal Navy[158] 18 November 1914: Lieutenant, 1st Battalion, Grenadier Guards, British Army. (First World War, Flanders and Italy)[158] 10 March 1916: Captain, British Army[158] 1918: Temporary Major, British Army[158] 15 April 1919: Colonel, British Army[158] 8 July 1919: Captain, Royal Navy[158] 5 December 1922: Group Captain, Royal Air Force[158][159] 1 September 1930: Vice-Admiral, Royal Navy; Lieutenant-General, British Army;[160] Air Marshal, Royal Air Force[161] 1 January 1935: Admiral, Royal Navy; General, British Army; Air Chief Marshal, Royal Air Force[162] 21 January 1936: Admiral of the Fleet, Royal Navy; Field Marshal, British Army; Marshal of the Royal Air Force[158] 3 September 1939: Major-General, British Army[163] Arms Edward's coat of arms as the Prince of Wales was the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom, differenced with a label of three points argent, with an inescutcheon representing Wales surmounted by a coronet (identical to those of Charles III when he was Prince of Wales). As Sovereign, he bore the royal arms undifferenced. After his abdication, he used the arms again differenced by a label of three points argent, but this time with the centre point bearing an imperial crown.[164] Coat of arms as Prince of Wales (granted 1911)[165] Coat of arms as Prince of Wales (granted 1911)[165] Coat of arms as King of the United Kingdom Coat of arms as King of the United Kingdom Scottish coat of arms as King of the United Kingdom Scottish coat of arms as King of the United Kingdom Coat of arms as Duke of Windsor Coat of arms as Duke of Windsor Ancestry Ancestors of Edward VIII[166] See also Cultural depictions of Edward VIII of the United Kingdom Abandoned coronation of Edward VIII List of prime ministers of Edward VIII Notes The instrument of abdication was signed on 10 December, and given legislative form by His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 the following day. The parliament of the Union of South Africa retroactively approved the abdication with effect from 10 December, and the Irish Free State recognised the abdication on 12 December.[1] His twelve godparents were: Queen Victoria (his paternal great-grandmother); the King and Queen of Denmark (his paternal great-grandparents, for whom his maternal uncle Prince Adolphus of Teck and his paternal aunt the Duchess of Fife stood proxy); t "White Rabbit" by Eliot Sumner Composer Ben Frost Country of origin Germany Original languages English Spanish French Polish German Danish Portuguese Cantonese No. of seasons 1 No. of episodes 8 Production Executive producers Jantje Friese Baran bo Odar Philipp Klausing Producer Pat Tookey-Dickson Production locations Germany United Kingdom Cinematography Nikolaus Summerer Running time 50–62 minutes Production company Dark Ways Original release Network Netflix Release November 17, 2022 1899 is a multilingual German mystery science fiction television series created by Jantje Friese and Baran bo Odar. It premiered on Netflix in November 2022 and received generally favourable reviews. The series was cancelled in January 2023. Premise Set in 1899, the series follows a group of European emigrants travelling from Southampton, UK on a steamship named Kerberos to start new lives in New York City. Cast and characters Main Emily Beecham as Maura Henriette Franklin/Singleton, a neurologist and one of the first female doctors in Britain, travelling alone to America Aneurin Barnard as Daniel Solace, a mysterious man who boards the Kerberos. Andreas Pietschmann as Eyk Larsen, the ship's weather-beaten captain Miguel Bernardeau as Ángel, a wealthy Spaniard traveling with Ramiro José Pimentão as Ramiro, a faux Portuguese priest traveling with Ángel Isabella Wei as Ling Yi, a mysterious young woman from Hong Kong, traveling with Yuk Je Gabby Wong as Yuk Je, a middle-aged woman from Hong Kong and Ling Yi's mother Yann Gael as Jérôme, a French stowaway Mathilde Ollivier as Clémence, a young woman from the Paris elite, accompanied by her new husband Lucien Jonas Bloquet as Lucien, an upper class Parisian, and former Lieutenant of the French Foreign Legion, newly married to his wife Clémence Rosalie Craig as Virginia Wilson, a sociable, wealthy British woman Maciej Musiał as Olek, a Polish stoker on his way to New York Clara Rosager as Tove, a young pregnant Danish woman traveling to New York City with her family Lucas Lynggaard Tønnesen as Krester, a young Danish man with a mysterious scar on his face Maria Erwolter as Iben, a religious Dane traveling with her husband Anker and children, who supposedly hears the voice of God Alexandre Willaume as Anker, a religious Dane going to New York with his wife Iben, his son Krester, and his daughters Tove and Ada Tino Mewes as Sebastian, the first mate on the Kerberos Isaak Dentler as Franz, the captain's right-hand man Fflyn Edwards as Elliot, a.k.a. "the boy", a mysterious mute boy found under unusual circumstances, who becomes Maura's charge on board the Kerberos. Anton Lesser as Henry Singleton, a British investor and Maura's father Recurring Vida Sjørslev as Ada, Krester and Tove's younger sister Alexander Owen as Landon, a stoker and friend of Darrel Ben Ashenden as Darrel, a stoker and friend of Landon Richard Hope as Dr. Reginald Murray, a boorish British doctor Joshua Jaco Seelenbinder as Eugen, an officer on the Kerberos Niklas Maienschein as Wilhelm, the telegraph operator on the Kerberos Jónas Alfreð Birkisson as Einar, a third class passenger from Norway and mutineer Heidi Toini as Bente, a third class passenger Guest Cloé Heinrich as Nina Larsen, Eyk's daughter Alexandra Gottschlich as Sara Larsen, Eyk's wife Kaja Chan as Mei Mei, Ling Yi's friend in Hong Kong Martin Greis as Villads, the landowner that employed Anker's family Episodes No. Title Directed by Written by Original release date 1 "The Ship" Baran bo Odar Jantje Friese November 17, 2022 On 19 October 1899, the steamship Kerberos is sailing from England to New York City. Four months earlier, its sister ship Prometheus disappeared without a trace on the same route. Maura and many of the first-class passengers on Kerberos are in the dining room when third-class passenger Krester bursts in pleading for a doctor. Krester is thrown out by Franz, but Maura follows Krester down into third-class, where she resolves Tove's tangled umbilical cord. Lucien and Clémence struggle with intimacy. Maura has strange visions. She encounters the captain of the Kerberos, Eyk, who warns her to follow the ship's rules. After receiving a message consisting of only a set of coordinates, presumably from the Prometheus, Eyk changes course of the Kerberos to those coordinates, to the chagrin of many passengers. Kerberos sights the Prometheus, which appears to be abandoned. Eyk boards Prometheus with Maura, Ramiro, Olek and Jérôme. Ángel takes an interest in Krester. A mysterious man boards Kerberos and moves into the room next to Maura's. On Prometheus, Eyk finds a strange hairband, and discovers that the telegraph is destroyed. Maura follows a scarab beetle to a cabinet and opens it to find a boy, who hands her a mysterious black tetrahedron. 2 "The Boy" Baran bo Odar Jantje Friese & Dario Madrona López Gallego November 17, 2022 Eyk receives a message from the shipping company reading only two words: "Sink ship". Maura houses the boy, the only person discovered on Prometheus, in her room. She discovers a ring in his possession, and a symbol of an upside-down triangle with a horizontal line behind his left ear. The mysterious man introduces himself to Maura as Daniel. Ángel gives Krester a cigarette tin. Jérôme breaks into Lucien and Clémence's room and leaves a Legion of Honour medal. Eyk has hallucinations of his wife and daughters, who died in a house fire some years ago; one of his daughters wears the same hairband found on Prometheus. He wakes up to find a shaft has appeared under the bed in his room. Tove finds the cigarette tin and angrily returns it to Ángel; Ángel and Ramiro have an argument which leads to them having sex. Jérôme is discovered to be a stowaway and subdued. Maura shows the boy a letter bearing the same triangle symbol which led her to board the ship, but he remains mute. Eyk decides to tow Prometheus back to Europe, to the growing displeasure of many passengers and crew. Eyk shows Maura a similar letter that led him to Kerberos, and he believes answers lie with the Prometheus. Ada is found dead. Elsewhere, someone is monitoring the ship's occupants on screens. 3 "The Fog" Baran bo Odar Jantje Friese & Emma Ko November 17, 2022 Ada's cause of death is unable to be determined. After Kerberos runs into heavy fog, Eyk orders the ship to stop and wait until the fog clears. Eyk shows Maura the hairband and the shaft in his room. The two head back to Prometheus to find its logbook. First mate, Sebastian uncovers a panel and inputs a sequence made of triangles. While hiding from her mother after an argument about her training to be a geisha, Ling Yi has flashbacks of her friend's accidental death which led to her boarding Kerberos. Olek finds Ling Yi and comforts her. Disobeying Eyk's orders to keep Ada's death secret, Franz lets Tove retrieve her body. Krester gives Ángel a handjob. Daniel enters Maura's room and meets with the boy. On the Prometheus, Eyk and Maura find another shaft bearing the triangle symbol, which is also the ship company's logo. More bodies are found on the Kerberos. Eyk finds a document in Prometheus's furnaces which he hides from Maura. Ling Yi entertains Lucien, though he has a seizure after an interruption by Clémence earlier prevented him from taking medication. Furious with Eyk's decision to return to Europe and hide Ada's death, Franz arms the third-class passengers and urges them to launch a mutiny. Olek attempts to warn Eyk but is beaten and locked up with Jérôme. Ramiro warns Eyk, but both are arrested by mutineers led by Tove. Daniel uses a device resembling a sliding puzzle to teleport the Kerberos. 4 "The Fight" Baran bo Odar Jantje Friese & Jerome Bucchan-Nelson November 17, 2022 The mutineers sail the Kerberos westward. Franz forces Jérôme and Olek to throw the bodies overboard. Sebastian convinces Iben the boy is to blame for the deaths, and she takes command of the mutineers and orders a search. Lucien finds the medal and attacks Clémence, only to apologize and leave. Eyk and Ramiro escape captivity. Iben leads a search of Maura's room, but the boy has disappeared. Maura discovers a shaft appearing under her bed with the boy hiding in it. The boy uses a beetle to lead Maura to a safe path across the ship. Olek stages a distraction, allowing Jérôme to escape. Krester spits in Ángel's face in front of Iben, but she tells him she wishes God had taken him rather than Ada. Jérôme encounters Clémence and the two find Eyk and Ramiro, later joined by Maura and the boy. The six attempt to launch a lifeboat, but are found by the mutineers. The boy surrenders himself, but Jérôme tries to intervene and is shot. Jérôme has flashbacks of his time in the French Foreign Legion alongside Lucien. When Lucien's suggestion to desert was rejected by Jérôme, he locks Jérôme in a cell, steals the uniform of a dead officer, and leaves the medal with Jérôme. Back on Kerberos, Eyk and Jérôme rally loyalists opposed to the mutineers. The two sides clash, but Iben throws the boy overboard before Maura can reach him. Eyk sounds a retreat. He confronts Maura with the document, which lists her as a passenger on the Prometheus. The boy reappears on the Kerberos to shocked loyalists. 5 "The Calling" Baran bo Odar Jantje Friese & Juliana Lima Dehne November 17, 2022 Disgusted by Iben and Krester's actions, Tove defects to the loyalists. Frightened of the boy, the loyalists lock him in a cabinet. Maura is shot at while trying to free him, but time suddenly freezes, and the boy leads her away. When time resumes, a mysterious ticking noise causes most of the ship's passengers, including Yuk Je and Krester, to enter a marching trance and throw themselves overboard. The boy writes Maura a cryptic note that "they" are listening, and whispers to her that if she wants answers, she needs to "ask the Creator". Using a beetle to reveal a passage in the shaft, the boy takes Maura to an abandoned mental asylum. Daniel follows and promises the boy "he" wouldn't find him. The Kerberos receives a second "sink ship" message. Exploring the asylum, Maura encounters Henry. She asks him about her long-lost brother, Ciaran, but is injected with a black substance and wakes up again on the Kerberos. Maura tells Eyk that her father is the owner of the ship company. She uses the beetle to open a passage in the shaft in Eyk's room, which lead them to Eyk's burned house. Daniel disables the ticking, and the survivors regroup. 6 "The Pyramid" Baran bo Odar Jantje Friese & Emil Nygaard Albertsen November 17, 2022 The survivors head to different tasks: Maura and Eyk look for the boy; Ramiro and Anker stay in the bridge with Sebastian; Ángel, Jérôme, Lucien, Olek, Ling Yi, and Franz head to the engine room to restart the engine; and Virginia, Clémence, Tove and Iben search for survivors. A black metallic substance begins to appear and grow in the ship. Tove experiences hallucinations of Krester and Ada, and has flashbacks of her rape by a feudal lord due to Krester's relationship with the lord's son, and her killing the lord. Olek and Ling Yi share their first kiss. Maura and Eyk return to the asylum; they find the walls appear to be the ship's hull. Virginia touches the substance and it spreads through her hand. Sebastian teleports off the ship and meets with Henry, who tells him to find the boy. The engine is restarted. Daniel follows Maura and Eyk; Eyk and Daniel fight, and Daniel teleports him away with the device. Daniel tells Maura they were married 12 years ago and that nothing in their world is real; Maura locks him in a room and takes the device. Eyk wakes to find himself on the Prometheus, surrounded by a sea of similarly abandoned ships. 7 "The Storm" Baran bo Odar Jantje Friese November 17, 2022 The Kerberos sails into a storm. The survivors in the bridge head to the engine room for help. Halfway, Iben refuses to follow the rest of the survivors, and Anker stays with her. Olek and Ling Yi head to the bridge to steer the ship. Franz and Tove move to seal the bulkheads. Daniel breaks down a wall and climbs through a series of portals in different landscapes. Maura climbs through the shaft in Daniel's room and finds herself in an abandoned house; she sees flashbacks of her with Daniel and finds photographs of the two of them with the boy. Daniel finds the boy and pledges to restore Maura's memory so she can "end this loop once and for all"; the boy gives him a wedding ring. Daniel finds Maura and tells her that the boy is their son, named Elliot. He also tells her that they are in a simulation, and that she needs to find the override. Maura takes out a key from her locket. Lucien collapses from a seizure; Clémence and Jérôme try to get him to his medicine, but Lucien dies before it can be administered. Ling Yi sees a vision of Yuk Je and runs out; Olek saves her, but is swept overboard by a wave. Ángel is hit by falling debris and dies in Ramiro's arms. Franz sacrifices himself to save Tove. Iben and Anker drown together. Sebastian brings Elliot to Henry, and Henry demands the key from Maura over an intercom in exchange for her son. The simulation ends and the Kerberos is transported to the sea of ships, where the passengers find Eyk. 8 "The Key" Baran bo Odar Jantje Friese November 17, 2022 Maura, Eyk, Jérôme, Clémence, Ramiro, Tove, Ling Yi and Virginia realize they all received a letter which led to them boarding the Kerberos. Maura tells them they are in a simulation orchestrated by her father, but all except Eyk distrust her and leave. Maura takes Eyk through the shaft in Daniel's room to his memories of their family. Maura and Eyk break down a wall and enter a series of portals. Henry injects Elliot with a white substance, unlocking a memory in which Maura injects Elliot with a black substance despite Daniel telling her to "let him go". Daniel hacks into the simulation, changing the code and causing many disruptions. The rest of the survivors escape from the rapidly expanding black substance in the ship, teleporting into each other's backgrounds before ending up back on the ship. Maura and Eyk run into Sebastian at the asylum. Sebastian uses a device to incapacitate Eyk, then take Maura to Henry and hands him the key. Henry tells Maura she is the Creator. Henry uses the key with the tetrahedron, but Daniel has made them useless. The simulation ends. Maura is reunited with Daniel, who tells her that Ciaran took over the program. Daniel gives her the means to leave, telling her he will "always be there". Maura wakes up alone in a starship called Prometheus, surrounded by many others that were on the Kerberos, placed under suspended animation. On a computer terminal, she sees the date is 19 October 2099, and receives a message from Ciaran welcoming her to reality. Production Development Series creators Jantje Friese (left) and Baran bo Odar (right) On 13 November 2018, it was announced that Dark creators Jantje Friese and Baran bo Odar were developing the project for Netflix under their overall deal at the streaming service.[1] The series was confirmed to be moving forward two weeks later during a Netflix press conference showcasing European original programming.[2] By July 2020, bo Odar revealed via Instagram that Friese had completed writing the script for the pilot episode, titled "The Ship."[3] During an interview with Deadline Hollywood, Friese explained how the European migrant crisis and Brexit were influential to the series, saying: The whole European angle was very important for us, not only story wise but also the way we were going to produce it. It really had to be a European collaboration, not just cast but also crew. We felt that with the past years of Europe being on the decline, we wanted to give a counterpoint to Brexit, and to nationalism rising in different countries, to go back to that idea of Europe and Europeans working and creating together. Being true to the cultures and the languages was really important, we never wanted to have characters from different countries but everyone speaks English. We wanted to explore this heart of Europe, where everyone comes from somewhere else and speaks a different language, and language defines so much of your culture and your behaviour. As with Dark, Friese served as the head writer of the show. The staff writing team comprised writers of different nationalities including Emma Ko (from Hong Kong and the UK), Coline Abert (from France), Jerome Bucchan-Nelson (from the UK), Juliana Lima Dehne (from Brazil and the US), Joshua Long (from the US), Darío Madrona (from Spain), and Emil Nygaard Albertsen (from Denmark). According to director Baran bo Odar, all scripts were first written in English, then the non-English sections were translated by the staff writers and/or translators. Odar had phonetic copies of the script on set, and language assistants were present during filming to ensure the accuracy of the dialogue.[4] Friese and bo Odar have ideas for two more seasons, with increased complexity compared to season 1.[5] The planned three-season structure stems from Friese's and bo Odar's film background, where films have three acts.[6] The first season served to establish the theme and characters and pose big questions.[6] If ordered by Netflix, the second season would explain the symbology of the triangles, and Maura's brother would be an important character.[6] bo Odar described this second act as "all about the fun and games, where you play with the theme, and maybe get a little bit more megalomaniacal and crazy, and then resolve it in the third season into a hopefully satisfying resolution."[6] Budget The budget for the series was at least €60 million ($62.2 million) with €2 million coming from Medienboard Berlin-Brandenburg,[7] €10 million coming from the German Motion Picture Fund,[8] and Netflix investing €48 million in the project. 1899 is the most expensive German television series of all time.[9] Casting On 16 December 2020, it was announced that Emily Beecham was cast in the lead role.[10] On 2 May 2021, Aneurin Barnard, Andreas Pietschmann, Miguel Bernardeau, Maciej Musiał, Anton Lesser, Lucas Lynggaard Tønnesen, Rosalie Craig, Clara Rosager, Maria Erwolter, Yann Gael, Mathilde Ollivier, José Pimentão, Isabella Wei, Gabby Wong, Jonas Bloquet, Fflyn Edwards, and Alexandre Willaume were added to the cast, with each character speaking in the actor's native language.[11] Filming Main Entrance to Babelsberg Studios with production sign Pre-production for the series officially commenced on 24 November 2020, with a week-long lens test shoot taking place.[12][13] The series was initially scheduled to begin principal photography on 1 February 2021,[14] but was later pushed back by 3 months. Filming officially began on 3 May 2021, at Studio Babelsberg in Potsdam, the only designated UNESCO Creative City of Film in Germany. The series was shot in a new virtual production stage called Volume, operated by bo Odar and Friese's sister company Dark Bay, at Studio Babelsberg.[15] Filming also took place in London, England.[14] Creative studio Framestore provided visual effects for the series.[16] Filming wrapped in November 2021 with Baran bo Odar posting on Instagram.[17] Release 1899 had a two-episode premiere on 47th Toronto International Film Festival on 12 September 2022. The series launched on Netflix on 17 November 2022,[18] along with a companion making-of documentary titled Making 1899.[19] Netflix announced a few days after release that 1899 was in 58 countries the most watched product of all the offerings available on Netflix at that time.[20] Despite this, on 2 January 2023, the show was cancelled.[21] Plagiarism accusations Shortly after the release of 1899, Brazilian comic book author Mary Cagnin, through her X account, claimed her comic book story Black Silence (2016) had been plagiarized by Baran bo Odar and Jantje Friese.[22] Cagnin mentioned that several elements of Black Silence had been reproduced in 1899 and speculated that the series creators discovered her work at the 2017 Gothenburg Book Fair, in Sweden, where she had distributed copies of Black Silence's English version. Cagnin said she was "heartbroken" and had "cried a lot" over the issue. Her thread speculating how Black Silence had been plagiarized went viral in Brazil.[23] Decider observed that "[a]side from an affinity for pyramids, it's hard to find many similarities" between the two projects", and noted that even when reading Black Silence with the specific goal of finding similarities to 1899, "the connections between the two properties were borderline nonexistent", concluding that "[c]reepy pyramids, suspicious suicides, weird codes, and outer space" are "incredibly common sci-fi tropes" and their appearance in both works is "not suspicious". [24] Jantje Friese responded the allegations through her Instagram account with a post that was later deleted, stating that "a Brazilian artist has claimed we stole from her graphic novel. To make it clear: we did not! Until yesterday we weren't even aware of the existence of that graphic novel". Friese went on to say that "Over two years we have put pain, sweat and exhaustion into the creation of 1899. This is an original idea and not based on any source material. Nevertheless we've been bombarded with messages – some of them ugly and hurtful." The series creator also added that "someone cries wolf and everyone jumps on it, not even checking whether the claims make any sense. [...] Of course should this be a scheme to sell more of her graphic novels: well played, [...]".[23] Baran bo Odar, through his own Instagram account, declared the creators of 1899 "would never steal from other artists as we feel as artists ourselves" and that they had reached out to Cagnin.[25] Later, Cagnin claimed the situation was being dealt with legally through her X account. She briefly deleted her account and later deleted the original thread of the accusations.[26] Cancellation and response Writing in Forbes about the cancellation of 1899 and other Netflix series, Paul Tassi said that "I feel like Netflix is almost actively stealing my time from me. [...] It's frankly exhausting, and if it's this exhausting for viewers, I have to imagine it's ten times as much for showrunners and actors. Netflix is becoming a graveyard stacked with dead series with unfinished conclusions. [...] Something has to change."[27] Writing in Digital Spy, David Opie said that "for all we know, there might be talks to save the show at HBO or Prime Video, plus there's a small chance that Netflix themselves might try and wrap things up in a one-off special or movie. That's exactly what happened after fans decried Netflix's decision to cancel Sense8 a few years back [that is also an international genre show]."[28] Fans took to social media to decry the decision, and a petition to save the show was started on Change.org. As of July 2024, it had garnered over 100,000 signatures.[29] Reception Audience viewership During its debut week, 1899 ranked at number two on Netflix's Top 10 TV English titles just three days after its release with 79.27 million hours viewed.[30][31] The following week, the series remained at the same position and garnered 87.89 million viewing hours.[32][33] In its third week, the series generated 44.62 million viewing hours, while also holding its position at number two.[34][35] Critical response The series received generally positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds an approval rating of 79% based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 6.80/10.[36] The website's critical consensus states, "1899 navigates its multicultural passengers through an atmospheric mystery and delivers a suspenseful journey, even if it may never reach a satisfying destination."[36] On Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, the series has a score of 66 out of 100 based on 12 critic reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[37] Collider named 1899 as one of the best new TV shows of 2022,[38] while MovieWeb ranked it the sixth best TV show of the year.[39] Accolades Year Award Category Nominee Result Ref. 2022 Camerimage TV Series Competition 1899 Nominated [40] 2023 American Society of Cinematographers Awards Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in Episode of a Series for Non-Commercial Television Nikolaus Summerer (for "The Calling") Nominated [41] Critics' Choice Television Awards Best Foreign Language Series 1899 Nominated [42] Grimme Prize Best Fiction Pending [43] References Clarke, Stewart (13 November 2018). "Migration Drama '1899' Is New Netflix Project From Creators of 'Dark'". Variety. Archived from the original on 3 May 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2021. "Netflix Reveals New Shows from Sweden, France, Germany, Spain, UK". Netflix (Press release). 24 November 2018. Retrieved 3 May 2021 – via The Futon Critic. bo Odar, Baran [@baranboodar] (31 July 2020). "Exciting! The next journey..." – via Instagram. Huff, Lauren (26 September 2022). "Dark creators tease the mysteries behind their new mind-bending Netflix series 1899". EW. Roxborough, Scott (16 November 2022). "The Creators of '1899' Reveal (Some of) the Secrets Behind the New Netflix Mystery Series". Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 24 November 2022. "1899: Wir erklären die verwirrende Netflix-Serie (mit Baran bo Odar und Jantje Friese)". streamgestoeber.podigee.io (Podcast) (in German). Streamgestöber. 23 November 2022. Event occurs at 36:30. Archived from the original on 24 November 2022. Retrieved 24 November 2022. Friese: Also, es wird [in der zweiten Staffel] auf jeden Fall aufgeklärt, was es mit diesen ganzen Dreiecken und so, Symbolen, zu tun hat. / bo Odar: Und der Bruder wird einen wichtigen Charakter spielen, auf alle Fälle. Also Mauras Bruder. [...] Wir kommen ja eigentlich vom Film, und deswegen auch immer drei Staffeln, weil wir das wie drei Akte sehen. Und der erste Akt ist dazu da, alles zu etablieren, das Thema zu setzen, die Charaktere einzuführen, eine große Frage zu stellen, die dann am Ende beantwortet wird. Und die zweite Staffel ist ein klassischer zweiter Akt eines Films, wo es um das Fun and Games geht, wo man mit dem Thema spielt, und man vielleicht noch ein bisschen größenwahnsinniger wird und verrückter, um es dann in der dritten Staffel in einer Auflösung, hoffentlich befriedigend, auflöst. Weil definitiv, die zweite Staffel wird etwas verrückter und wilder. Wenn es eine [zweite Staffel] gibt. Müller, Jochen. "Medienboard: Zwei Mio. Euro für deutsche Netflix-Serie "1899"". blickpunktfilm. Niemeier, Timo. "Netflix-Serie "1899" erhält Mega-Förderung aus dem GMPF". dwdl. "Netflix and Sky are strengthening Germany as a series location". die—tagespost. Wiseman, Andreas (16 December 2020). "'Cruella' & 'The Pursuit Of Love' Actress Emily Beecham To Star In Netflix's Period Horror '1899' From 'Dark' Creators". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on 28 January 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2021. Grater, Tom (2 May 2021). "Aneurin Barnard, Andreas Pietschmann, Miguel Bernardeau & More Join Epic Netflix Series '1899' From 'Dark' Creators". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on 3 May 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2021. bo Odar, Baran [@baranboodar] (24 November 2020). "1899 lens test shooting day #1... thanks to our lovely stand-ins Judith and Bryan... #1899 #hasselbladx1dii @netflix". Retrieved 3 May 2021 – via Instagram. bo Odar, Baran [@baranboodar] (1 December 2020). "Really like these colors and the darkness of these images from our lense camera test for 1899... #1899 #hasselbladx1dii @netflix". Retrieved 3 May 2021 – via Instagram. "1899". Production List. Film & Television Industry Alliance. 5 November 2020. Archived from the original on 3 May 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2021. Grater, Tom (3 May 2021). "'1899' First Interviews: Netflix & The Creators Of 'Dark' Talk Building Europe's Largest Virtual Production Stage To Shoot Ambitious Multilingual Series". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on 3 May 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2021. bo Odar, Baran [@baranboodar] (15 January 2021). "The future of working... endless zoom calls for 1899. this time with @framestore in London who are doing VFX work for 1899... #1899 @netflix". Retrieved 3 May 2021 – via Instagram. Moore, Kasey (12 August 2022). "Netflix's '1899' From 'Dark' Creators: Everything We Know So Far". What's on Netflix. Retrieved 5 September 2022. Netflix [@Netflix] (24 September 2022). "The new mystery series from the creators of DARK. 1899 premieres November 17 to positive reviews #TUDUM" (Tweet). Retrieved 24 September 2022 – via Twitter. Moore, Kasey (17 November 2022). "'1899' Making Of Documentary Drops on Netflix Globally". What's on Netflix. Retrieved 17 November 2022. Frank, Arno (21 November 2022). "(S+) »1899«: Netflix-Serie soll bei Comic geklaut haben – was ist dran am Vorwurf". Der Spiegel (in German). ISSN 2195-1349. Retrieved 21 November 2022. Petski, Denise (2 January 2023). "'1899' Canceled After One Season At Netflix". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved 2 January 2023. Wünsch, Silke (23 November 2022). "Netflix series '1899' accused of plagiarism". DW. Retrieved 31 July 2024. Danhauer, Whitney (27 November 2022). "Creator of Netflix's '1899' Slams Comic Book Artist Claiming the Series Copied Her Original Idea – Says She's 'Crying Wolf'". Showbiz Cheatsheet. Retrieved 31 July 2024. Cobb, Kayla (21 November 2022). "Was '1899' on Netflix Plagiarized? Everything We Know". Retrieved 31 July 2024. Figueiredo, Ana Luiza (21 November 2022). ""1899": autora brasileira acusa série da Netflix de plágio; entenda o caso". Olhar Digital (in Portuguese). Retrieved 31 July 2024. "[SPOILERS S1] Plagiarism claimant deleted her account". Reddit. 3 December 2022. Retrieved 31 July 2024. "'1899' Cancellation Reiterates Why It's Hard To Bother Investing In Netflix Shows". Forbes. Retrieved 3 January 2023. "Why 1899 was cancelled – and the chances of season 2 or a spinoff". Digital Spy. Retrieved 3 January 2023. "Petition is signed for second series of Netflix's 1899". RTÉ.ie. 3 January 2023. "Netflix Global Top 10". Netflix. 20 November 2022. Archived from the original on 30 November 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2022. Bell, BreAnna (22 November 2022). "Netflix Top 10: 'The Crown' Season 5 Continues to Reign at No. 1, '1899' Debuts at No. 2". Variety. Archived from the original on 30 November 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2022. "Netflix Global Top 10". Netflix. 27 November 2022. Archived from the original on 30 November 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2022. Mitovich, Matt Webb (29 November 2022). "Wednesday Bests a Netflix Viewership Record Set by Stranger Things 4". TVLine. Archived from the original on 30 November 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2022. "Netflix Global Top 10". Netflix. 4 December 2022. Archived from the original on 7 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022. Hailu, Selome (6 December 2022). "'Wednesday' Has Already Become Netflix's Third Most Popular English-Language Series of All Time". Variety. Retrieved 6 December 2022. "1899: Season 1". Rotten Tomatoes. Archived from the original on 3 December 2022. Retrieved 23 November 2022. "1899". Metacritic. Archived from the original on 3 December 2022. Retrieved 22 November 2022. Kutschker, Eden (13 December 2022). "10 New TV Shows From 2022 To Binge Before The Year Ends". Collider. Retrieved 14 December 2022. Bundela, Rudransh (29 November 2022). "The Best TV Shows of 2022, Ranked". MovieWeb. Retrieved 14 December 2022. "Energa Camerimage 2022 – Nominations". Independent Talent. Archived from the original on 20 December 2022. Retrieved 20 December 2022. "2023 ASC Awards Nominees Announced". American Society of Cinematographers. Retrieved 10 January 2023. Nordyke, Kimberly (15 January 2023). "Critics Choice Awards: Full List of Winners". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 16 January 2023. "The nominations for the Grimme Prize 2023". Trend Detail News. 19 January 2023. Retrieved 20 January 2023. 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Millennium: 2nd millennium Centuries: 18th century19th century 20th century Decades: 1870s1880s1890s 1900s1910s Years: 1896189718981899 190019011902 1899JanuaryFebruaryMarchAprilMayJuneJulyAugustSeptemberOctoberNovemberDecember 1899 by topic Humanities AnimationArchaeologyArchitectureArtFilmLiterature PoetryMusic By country AustraliaBelgiumBrazilBulgariaCanadaChinaDenmarkFranceGermanyItalyNew ZealandNorwayPhilippinesPortugalRussiaSouth AfricaSpainSwedenUnited KingdomUnited States Other topics Rail transportScienceSports Lists of leaders Sovereign statesSovereign state leadersTerritorial governorsReligious leadersLaw Birth and death categories BirthsDeaths Establishments and disestablishments categories EstablishmentsDisestablishments Works category Works vte 1899 in various calendars Gregorian calendar 1899 MDCCCXCIX Ab urbe condita 2652 Armenian calendar 1348 ԹՎ ՌՅԽԸ Assyrian calendar 6649 Baháʼí calendar 55–56 Balinese saka calendar 1820–1821 Bengali calendar 1305–1306 Berber calendar 2849 British Regnal year 62 Vict. 1 – 63 Vict. 1 Buddhist calendar 2443 Burmese calendar 1261 Byzantine calendar 7407–7408 Chinese calendar 戊戌年 (Earth Dog) 4596 or 4389 — to — 己亥年 (Earth Pig) 4597 or 4390 Coptic calendar 1615–1616 Discordian calendar 3065 Ethiopian calendar 1891–1892 Hebrew calendar 5659–5660 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 1955–1956 - Shaka Samvat 1820–1821 - Kali Yuga 4999–5000 Holocene calendar 11899 Igbo calendar 899–900 Iranian calendar 1277–1278 Islamic calendar 1316–1317 Japanese calendar Meiji 32 (明治３２年) Javanese calendar 1828–1829 Julian calendar Gregorian minus 12 days Korean calendar 4232 Minguo calendar 13 before ROC 民前13年 Nanakshahi calendar 431 Thai solar calendar 2441–2442 Tibetan calendar 阳土狗年 (male Earth-Dog) 2025 or 1644 or 872 — to — 阴土猪年 (female Earth-Pig) 2026 or 1645 or 873 Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1899. 1899 (MDCCCXCIX) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar, the 1899th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 899th year of the 2nd millennium, the 99th year of the 19th century, and the 10th and last year of the 1890s decade. As of the start of 1899, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. Events January January 1: Cuba free. January 1 Spanish rule ends in Cuba, concluding 400 years of the Spanish Empire in the Americas. Queens and Staten Island become administratively part of New York City. January 5 – A fierce battle is fought between American troops and Filipino defenders at the town of Pililla on the island of Luzon. January 8 – The Association football club SK Rapid Wien is founded in Vienna. January 9 – After a successful revolt against the Ottoman Empire by the inhabitants of the island of Crete, the area, which joins Greece, gets its first constitution. January 10 – The Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity is founded, at Illinois Wesleyan University in Bloomington, Illinois. January 13 – The Canadian Northern Railway is established.[1] January 14 The White Star Line's transatlantic ocean liner RMS Oceanic is launched from the Belfast shipyards in Ireland. At 17,272 gross register tons and 704 ft (215 m), she is the largest ship afloat at this time.[2] The British four-masted sailing ship Andelana capsizes during a storm in Commencement Bay off the coast of the U.S. state of Washington, with the loss of all 17 of her crew.[3] January 17 – The United States takes possession of Wake Island in the Pacific Ocean. January 19 – The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan is formed (it is disbanded in 1956). January 21 Opel Motors opens for business in Germany. The Malolos Constitution is ratified by the Revolutionary Government of the Philippines. January 21: Opel car. January 22 – The leaders of six Australian colonies meet in Melbourne, to discuss the confederation of Australia as a whole. January 23 Emilio Aguinaldo is sworn in as President of the First Philippine Republic. Mubarak Al-Sabah, the emir of Kuwait, signs the Anglo-Kuwaiti Agreement of 1899, a secret treaty with the British Empire to accept protectorate status for the Middle Eastern sheikdom in return for British protection of Kuwaiti territory. The British Southern Cross Expedition crosses the Antarctic Circle. January 24 – The Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine is founded. January 26 – German inventor Karl Ferdinand Braun, who will later share the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Guglielmo Marconi, receives a British patent for his wireless radio invention "Telegraphy without directly connected wire".[4] January 27 – Camille Jenatzy of France becomes the first man to drive an automobile more than 80 kilometers per hour, when he reaches a speed of 80.35 kph in his CGA Dogcart racecar. Jenatzy's speed is more than 20% faster than the previous record. January 28 – The League of Peja, organized by Haxhi Zeka to lobby for a Kosovar Albanian state within the Ottoman Empire, attracts 450 delegates to its first convention, held at the city of Peja.[5] February February 1 Ranavalona III, who had been the Queen of Madagascar until being deposed on February 28, 1897, is sent into exile by English colonial authorities, along with the rest of the royal family.[6] The Suntory whisky distiller and worldwide alcoholic and soft drink brand of Japan is established by Shinjiro Torii in Osaka as a store selling imported wines.[7] February 2 – The participants in the Australian Premiers' Conference agree that Australia's capital (Canberra) should be located between Sydney and Melbourne. February 4 – The Philippine–American War begins as hostilities break out in Manila. February 5 – The first major battle of the Philippine–American War concludes with the capture by the U.S. of the San Juan River Bridge that connects Manila and San Juan.[8] February 6 – A peace treaty between the United States and Spain is ratified by the United States Senate to end the Spanish–American War. February 10 – U.S. Army troops, supported by bombardment from the warships Charleston and Monadnock, defeat Filipino forces in the Battle of Caloocan and get control of the Manila to Dagupan railway. February 13 – Cipriano Castro starts the Restorative Liberal Revolution by leading 60 people from exile to cross the Colombia–Venezuela border to defeat Ignacio Andrade's government. February 15 – The February Manifesto is issued by the Emperor of Russia, decreeing that a veto by the Diet of Finland may be overruled in legislative matters concerning the interest of all Russia, including autonomous Finland. February 16 Félix Faure, the President of France since 1895, dies of a stroke in his office while engaged in sexual activity with his mistress, Marguerite Steinheil. Knattspyrnufélag Reykjavíkur, the first Association football club in Iceland, is established in Reykjavík. February 17 – The research vessel SS Southern Cross, on an Antarctic expedition led by Carsten Borchgrevink, arrives at Cape Adare and begins unloading 90 sledge dogs – the first ever on the continent – and two Norwegian Sámi crewmen, who become the first humans to spend the night in Antarctica. Over the next 12 days, the rest of the 31-man crew builds a temporary settlement. February 18 – The National Assembly of France elects a new President to serve the remainder of the late President Faure's term. Senate president Émile Loubet wins the vote against prime minister Jules Méline.[9] February 19 – In Venezuela, the former Minister of War, Major General Ramón Guerra, angry with the reforms of President Ignacio Andrade, proclaims the state of Guárico as an independent territory. Andrade orders General Augusto Lutowsky to crush the rebellion. Guerra flees to Colombia but later comes back as Minister of War.[10] February 20 – Discussions among members of a joint Anglo-American commission, set up by U.S. President William McKinley and Canadian Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier to resolve the Alaska boundary dispute, end abruptly after it is clear that the U.S. will not make any concessions. In response, Laurier makes clear that there will be no further concessions with the U.S. in trade.[11] February 21 The British freighter SS Jumna is last seen passing Rathlin Island off Northern Ireland. Bound from Scotland to deliver a shipment of coal to Uruguay with minimal crew, it never arrives and is never seen again.[12] The Vicksburg National Military Park is established in Mississippi to preserve the battlefield of the Battle of Vicksburg. February 25 – In an accident at Grove Hill, Harrow, London, England, Edwin Sewell becomes the world's first driver of a petrol-driven vehicle to be killed; his passenger, Major James Richer, dies of injuries three days later.[13] February 27 – Japanese immigration to South America, primarily Peru, begins as the ship Sakura Maru departs from Yokohama with 790 men employed by the Morioka-shokai Sugar Company. The group arrives in Callao on April 3.[14] March March 2 – Mount Rainier National Park is established in the U.S. state of Washington. March 3 – Guglielmo Marconi conducts radio beacon experiments on Salisbury Plain and notices that radio waves are being reflected back to the transmitter by objects they encounter, one of the early steps in the development of radar.[15] March 4 – Cyclone Mahina strikes Bathurst Bay, Queensland. A 12-meter-high wave reaches up to 5 km inland, leaving over 400 dead (one of the deadliest natural disasters in Australia's history). March 6: Aspirin. March 6 – In Berlin, Felix Hoffmann patents Aspirin and Bayer registers its name as a trademark.[16] March 8 – The Frankfurter Fußball-Club Victoria von 1899 (predecessor of Eintracht Frankfurt) is founded. March 10 – At the Battle of Balantang, the U.S. Army sustains 400 casualties in an attack by Philippine troops. March 11 The world's first wireless distress signal is sent by wireless telegraphy (in Morse code) to the East Goodwin light vessel when German cargo-carrying barquentine Elbe runs aground in fog in the English Channel.[17] Waldemar Jungner files the patent application for the first alkaline battery and receives a Swedish patent.[18] March 14 – After a civil war breaks out in Samoa between Malietoa Tanumafili I (recognized by Germany, the U.K. and the U.S.) and rebels who recognize Mata'afa Iosefo as the island's king, the USS Philadelphia takes control of the capital at Apia. March 17 – A fire kills 86 people at the Windsor Hotel in New York City.[19] March 18 – Phoebe, the ninth-known moon of the planet Saturn is discovered by U.S. astronomer William Pickering from analysis of photographic plates made by a Peruvian observatory, the first discovery of a satellite photographically. March 19 One of the first labor unions for government employees is formed with the organization in Denmark of the Copenhagen Municipal Workers' Union The Battle of Taguig takes place in the Philippines as the USS Laguna de Bay bombards the Katipunan stronghold. March 20 – At Sing Sing prison in Ossining, New York, Martha M. Place becomes the first woman to be executed in an electric chair. March 21 – The Eden Theatre in La Ciotat, a commune in France near Marseille, lays a claim to being the first cinema as brothers Auguste Lumière and Louis Lumière present their short film, L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat ("The Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat Station") to 250 surprised spectators.[20] March 24 – The U.S. Ambassador to Argentina, acting as arbitrator of a boundary dispute between Argentina and Chile, awards the disputed territory to Chile.[21] March 26 – In the first major action in the Malolos Campaign in the Philippine–American War, 90 Filipino soldiers are killed in the Battle of the Meycauayan bridge. March 27 Guglielmo Marconi successfully transmits a radio signal across the English Channel.[22] In the Battle of Marilao River, Filipino forces under the personal command of Emilio Aguinaldo fail to prevent troops of the United States Army crossing the river. March 30 – The British steamer Stella sinks in the English Channel with the loss of 80 people after wrecking against Les Casquets.[21] March 31 The United Kingdom announces that it has completed the purchase of rights to occupy the Kingdom of Tonga.[21] In the Philippine–American War, Malolos, capital of the First Philippine Republic, is captured by American forces. April April 1 – The Second Battle of Vailele takes place in Samoa as rebels loyal to King Mata'afa Iosefo force the retreat of American and British troops loyal to Prince Tanumafili. April 4 – Cuba's General Assembly votes to disband the Cuban army and to dissolve to accept U.S. sovereignty.[21] April 5 – A team of sets out from Northern Rhodesia to explore the minerals of central Africa for the British company Tanganyika Concessions (TCL). Discovering that the most valuable copper deposits are in the Congo Free State, TCL makes an unsuccessful attempt to purchase full rights from King Leopold of Belgium. April 7 – The Shootout at Wilson Ranch, the last major gunfight of the Wild West era in the U.S., takes place in Tombstone, Arizona. Brothers William Halderman and Thomas Halderman, kill two lawmen. They will be hanged on November 16, 1900. April 9 In Uganda, King Chwa II Kabalega of the Bunyoro kingdom, a leader of the fight against British colonial occupation, is taken prisoner after being shot in a battle near Hoima. Kabalega is exiled to the Seychelles and remains there until 1923. The Greek ship Maria sinks after a collision in the Mediterranean and 45 people drown.[21] The Battle of Santa Cruz begins in the Philippines between U.S. Army troops and nationalists of the First Philippine Republic. After a two day battle, 93 Filipino fighters and one American soldier are dead. April 10 – Seven people are shot and killed in a gun battle at the Springside Mine at Pana, Illinois, between striking white union coal miners and African-Americans hired as strikebreakers.[21] April 11 – U.S. President William McKinley declares the Spanish-American War to be at an end as the Treaty of Paris between the U.S. and Spain goes into effect. Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam are ceded to the U.S. and Cuba becomes an American protectorate.[21] April 12 – Bolivia's President Severo Fernández is overthrown in a military coup d'état led by General José Manuel Pando. April 13 – The British freighter City of York departs from San Francisco with a crew of 27 and a cargo of timber bound for Fremantle, but never reaches its destination, wrecking on the reefs at Rottnest Island. April 14 – British Army troops in Hong Kong attack the Walled City of Kowloon, based on intelligence that Chinese Imperial Army troops have been stationed behind the walls to subvert Britain's 1898 lease. April 16 – Britain formally claims possession of the "New Territories" as an extension of its lease of Hong Kong to cover the area south of the Sham Chun River and 230 islands in Kowloon Bay. April 17 – The first elections for the 10-member Legislative Council of the British colony of Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), limited to European candidates and voters. April 19 – France adds the Kingdom of Laos, a protectorate since 1893, to the existing colony of French Indochina. April 20 – Catulle Mendès' controversial ballet Le Cygne premieres at the Opéra-Comique in Paris, but is considered by critics to be too sexually explicit. April 21 – The nova V606 Aquilae is first observed from Earth as seen within the constellation Aquila. April 22 – In aid of the Royal Niger Company, the British Army begins an invasion of Esanland, in Nigeria, to halt the resistance of the Esan chiefs to European rule. After Benin's King Ologbosere is overcome, the British attack the kingdom at Ekpoma. April 23 – The steamship General Whitney sinks off the coast of St. Augustine, Florida. While everyone on board escapes in lifeboats, one of the boats capsizes, drowning the captain and 16 other crew. April 24 – The Scottish ship Loch Sloy is wrecked off the coast of Australia's Kangaroo Island, drowning 32 people on board. A timepiece created in Victoria Hong Kong on 25 April 1899 April 26 – Jean Sibelius conducts the world première of his Symphony No. 1 in Helsinki. April 28 – The United Kingdom and the Russian Empire sign the Anglo-Russian Agreement formalizing their spheres of influence in China, essentially agreeing that Britain will not seek railway concessions north of the Great Wall of China, and Russia will avoid doing the same in the Yangtze River valley in southern China.[23] April 29 – Camille Jenatzy of Belgium becomes the first person to drive faster than 100 kilometers per hour, powering his electric racecar at 105.88 kilometres per hour (65.79 mph) at a track at Achères. May May 2 – The Kingdom of Siam (modern-day Thailand) cedes its province of Luang Prabang (now Laos) to France.[24] May 3 – The Ferencvárosi TC Association football club is founded in Budapest. May 4 – German inventor John Matthias Stroh applies for the patent for his new invention, the "Stroh violin". A British patent is granted on March 24, 1900. May 8 – In the French West African colony of Niger, Paul Voulet massacres the Hausa inhabitants of the village of Birni-N'Konni in retaliation for the continued resistance of Queen Sarraounia. May 10 – Finnish farmworker Karl Emil Malmelin kills seven people with an axe at the Simola croft in the village of Klaukkala.[25] May 13 A train wreck near Reading, Pennsylvania kills 28 people and injures 50.[24] The Esporte Clube Vitória football club is founded in Salvador, Brazil. May 14 – The three time world champion Club Nacional de Football is founded in Montevideo, Uruguay. May 16 – British troops in the leased Chinese territory of Hong Kong take control of the city of Kowloon.[24] May 18 – The First Hague Peace Conference, initiated by Emperor Nicholas II of Russia, is opened in The Hague by Willem de Beaufort, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands. May 20 – The American Physical Society is founded at a meeting at Columbia University. May 24 – Jules Massenet's Cendrillon, the first opera based on the fairy tale of Cinderella, premieres in Paris at the Opéra-Comique in Paris. May 27 Rangers F.C., one of the most successful teams in the Scottish Football League, is incorporated. Maurice Ravel conducts the first public performance of his Shéhérazade, ouverture de féerie in Paris.[26] May 31 The Harriman Alaska Expedition is launched. The Bloemfontein Conference commences between Paul Kruger and Sir Alfred Milner in the Orange Free State, but ends in failure after six days.[27] June June 2 – American outlaws Robert L. Parker (Butch Cassidy) and Harry A. Longabaugh ("The Sundance Kid") commit their first armed robbery as "The Wild Bunch", stopping a Union Pacific train near Wilcox, Wyoming, with accomplices Harvey Logan and Elzy Lay, and steal more than $30,000 worth of cargo. June 3 Dreyfus affair: France's Court of Cassation orders a reopening of the 1894 conviction for treason of French Army Captain Alfred Dreyfus after evidence of a wrongful conviction is made public, and directs that Dreyfus be returned to France after five years of imprisonment on Devil's Island.[27] The United States and Spain resume diplomatic relations, as U.S. President McKinley receives the Duke of Arcos as the new Minister for Spain.[27] June 5 – General Antonio Luna, Commander of the Philippine Revolutionary Army, is assassinated along with his chief aide, Colonel Paco Román, after being lured to Cabanatuan by President Emilio Aguinaldo. June 9 – American boxer James J. Jeffries wins the world heavyweight boxing championship when he knocks out Cornish-born Bob Fitzsimmons at Coney Island, New York.[28] June 10 – Under the terms of the Samoa Tripartite Convention, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States form a colonial government to administer a protectorate over the islands of Samoa. The government lasts less than nine months, and Germany annexes the western part of Samoa on March 1, 1900, leaving the U.S. to control what becomes American Samoa. June 11 – Pope Leo XIII issues a declaration of the consecration of the entire human race to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. The consecration follows the issuance of his papal encyclical Annum sacrum, declaring 1900 to be a Holy Year and directing all Roman Catholic churches in the world to implement the Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart during the period of June 9 to June 11, 1899. June 12 – The New Richmond tornado completely destroys the town of New Richmond, Wisconsin, killing 117 and injuring more than 200. June 13 – The village of Herman, Nebraska, with a population of 319, is destroyed by a tornado and 40 people are killed.[27] June 15 Sweden's Department of Foreign Affairs hosts a conference for delegates from Germany, Denmark, Norway, the UK, the Netherlands, Russia and Sweden to make agreements on fishing in the Arctic Ocean, the Baltic Sea and the North Sea.[29] Cycle & Carriage, one of the largest companies in Singapore, is founded. June 17 – David Hilbert creates the modern concept of geometry, with the publication of his book Grundlagen der Geometrie, released at Göttingen.[30] June 18 – The Federación Libre de Trabajadores is created in Puerto Rico as a resistance movement against the United States. June 19 The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan is created, to be a territory to be administered jointly by Egypt and the United Kingdom, through an Egyptian governor-general appointed with consent of the UK, although in practice it becomes administered as part of the British Empire. Edward Elgar's Enigma Variations are premiered in London.[31] June 21 – "Treaty 8", the most comprehensive of the eleven Numbered Treaties, is signed between the British Crown on behalf of Canada, with various Cree groups of the First Nations, ceding 320,000 square miles (830,000 km2) of land in the northern parts of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and British Columbia, as well as a portion of the Northwest Territories, to the Canadian government. June 24 – Spain cedes its last Pacific Ocean colonies, the Caroline Islands (later part of the Federated States of Micronesia, the Ladrone islands of Ladrone (later part of the Mariana Islands), and Palau, to Germany.[32] June 26 – Joseph Chamberlain sets into motion the Second Boer War after receiving an appeal from the British Cape Colony in South Africa to help British subjects oppressed in the Transvaal Republic.[33] June 27 A patent for a form of paperclip is applied for by Norwegian inventor Johan Vaaler but it is never put into production.[34] A. E. J. Collins, a 13-year-old schoolboy, makes the highest-ever recorded individual score in cricket, 628 not out. His record will stand for 117 years. June 28 – In Nigeria, British authorities publicly hang King Ologbosere Irabor outside of the courthouse at Benin City, after he was convicted of ordering the massacre of a party dispatched by the British consul.[35] June 30 – 'Mile-a-Minute Murphy' earns his nickname after he becomes the first man to ride a bicycle for one-mile (1.6 km) in under a minute, on Long Island. Murphy pedals his bike one mile in 57.8 seconds for an average speed of 62.28 miles per hour.[32] July July 1 The International Council of Nurses is founded in London.[36] The German domestic appliance company Miele is founded. July 3 – Swiss-born American boxer Frank Erne wins the world lightweight championship by defeating champion George "Kid" Lavigne in Buffalo, New York. July 4 – The most famous skeleton of a dinosaur ever found intact, a Diplodicus, is discovered at the Sheep Creek Quarry near Medicine Bow, Wyoming. The expedition team, financed by Andrew Carnegie for the Carnegie Museum of Natural History and led by William Harlow Reed, bestows the name "Dippy" on the Diplodicus carnegii. It becomes well known after Carnegie has plaster cast replicas made for donation to museums all over the world. [37] July 5 – The 1895 Trade and Navigation agreement between the Japanese and Russian empires goes into effect, with each country was given "a full freedom of ship and cargo entrance to all places, ports, and rivers on the other country's territory."[38] July 7 – The Great Lakes Towing Company is incorporated by John D. Rockefeller and William G. Mather to acquire more than 150 tugboats to control shipping in four of the North American Great Lakes and quickly builds a monopoly on Great Lakes traffic. July 8 – The Lorelei Fountain is unveiled in The Bronx in New York City. July 10 – British colonial authorities in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan give control of the Red Sea port of Suakin to Sudan, after having agreed that Egypt would have the right to administer commerce there. July 11 – In Turin, Giovanni Agnelli and eight investors form the Italian automobile manufacturer F.I.A.T., producers of the Fiat motor vehicles. July 12 – The British freight ship City of York sinks after striking reefs at Rottnest Island, due to a misunderstanding of signal flare fired from the island's lighthouse. The ship, which was nearing the end of a voyage from San Francisco to Fremantle, Western Australia, evacuates its men in two lifeboats, but one of the boats overturns and 11 men, including the captain, drown. July 13 – A tornado kills 13 people in the U.S. village of Herman, Nebraska. July 14 – The first Republic of Acre is declared by former Spanish journalist Luis Gálvez Rodríguez de Arias in the Amazon jungle in South America, and lasts for nine months. July 17 NEC Corporation is organized as the first Japanese joint venture with foreign capital. In the Battle of Togbao in Chad, the French Bretonnet–Braun mission is destroyed by the warlord Rabih az-Zubayr. The Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation takes effect, ending extraterritoriality and the unequal status of Japan in foreign commerce.[39] July 18 – The patent for the first sofa bed is taken out by African-American inventor Leonard C. Bailey. He receives a U.S. patent on June 2, 1900. July 20 – Park Row Building in New York City is completed. It is the world's tallest building until 1908. July 24 – In the first trade treaty signed by the U.S. after the passage of the Dingley Act, France and the United States sign an agreement for a 20% reduction of France's existing tariffs on 635 items, in return for the U.S. reduction between 5% and 20% of duty fees on 126 items.[40] July 26 – The President of the Dominican Republic, dictator Ulises Heureaux, is assassinated during a visit to the city of Moca.[41] July 29 – The first international Peace Conference ends, with the signing of the First Hague Convention. July 30 – The Harriman Alaska Expedition ends. July 31 – Duke of York Island, off Antarctica, is discovered by the Southern Cross Expedition.[42] August August 3 – The John Marshall Law School is founded in Chicago. August 4 – Japan rescinds its policy of extraterritoriality privileges to western nations that had operated consular courts to try cases against western nationals under western law.[43] August 5 – Automotive mechanic Henry Ford incorporates the Detroit Automobile Company. While the company failed, it establishes Detroit, Michigan, as the site for U.S. car manufacturing and provided a model for the Ford Motor Company.[44] August 6 – Near Stratford, Connecticut, 36 people are killed when a trolley falls off of a trestle and lands upside down in a pond 40 feet below.[45] August 7 Dreyfus affair: The retrial of French Army Captain Alfred Dreyfus before a court-martial opens. Governance of the island of Guam, under the administration of the United States Department of the Navy, begins.[46] August 8 – The San Ciriaco hurricane strikes Puerto Rico and leaves 250,000 people homeless.[47] The official death toll is later listed as 3,369 people.[48] August 10 – Marshall "Major" Taylor wins the world 1-mile (1.6 km) professional cycling championship in Montreal, securing his place as the first African American world champion in any sport.[49] August 12 – South African Republic General Jan Smuts makes a final initiative to avert the outbreak of what will become the Second Boer War, meeting in Pretoria with the British charge d'affaires, Conyngham Greene.[50] August 13 – The battle for the Philippine city of Angeles begins. The U.S. captures the area, the future site of Clark Air Force Base, by August 16.[51] August 17 – Emperor Gojong of Korea issues the 9-article International Declaration declaring that, as "the great emperor of Korea", he has "infinite military authority" as well as absolute power to enact laws.[52] August 18 – Llest Colliery explosion at Pontyrhyl in the South Wales coalfield of the U.K. kills 19 miners.[53] August 20 – The Kiram–Bates Treaty is signed in the Philippines, with U.S. forces recognizing the autonomy of local governments in the Sulu Archipelago (within the Mindanao island group) in return for the Sultan's assistance in suppressing attacks on U.S. forces. August 23 – The first ship-to-shore test of a wireless radio transmission is made from the U.S. lightship LV 70, with the sending of Morse code signals to a receiving station near San Francisco.[54] August 28 – At least 512 people are killed when a debris hill from the Sumitomo Besshi copper mine at Niihama, Shikoku, Japan, collapses.[55] August 30 – After taking over the second-largest city in the Dominican Republic, Santiago de los Caballeros, revolutionists proclaim Horacio Vásquez as the nation's President in rebel-controlled territory. At the same time in the capital at Santo Domingo, president Wenceslao Figuereo steps down after only five weeks in office.[56] August 31 – The Olympique de Marseille association football club is founded in France.[57] September September 5 – General Horacio Vasquez, leader of a revolution against the Dominican Republic's President Wenceslao Figuereo, arrives at the capital, Santo Domingo and forms a provisional government. September 9 – Dreyfus affair: In the retrial of his court-martial, Alfred Dreyfus is again found guilty of treason and sentenced to serve the remaining 10 years of his prison sentence on Devils Island, notwithstanding that the real culprit has previously admitted to his actions.[58] September 11 – Northern Arizona University is founded in Flagstaff, as Northern Arizona Normal School. September 13 Halford Mackinder, Cesar Ollier and Josef Brocherel make the first ascent of Batian, the highest peak of Mount Kenya.[59] The French Army invades the Sultanate of Zinder in Niger and kills the ruler, Amadou Kouran Daga.[60] September 14 – General Cipriano Castro defeats the Venezuelan Army at the battle of Tocuyito and prepares to march to Caracas to overthrow President Ignacio Andrade. September 15 – Preparing for an attack on Britain's Cape Colony from the neighboring Transvaal Republic, Robert Baden-Powell arrives at the border town of Mafeking and begins recruiting volunteers and stockpiling munitions to prepare for an attack and siege.[61] September 19 Dreyfus affair: Alfred Dreyfus is pardoned in France by the Ministry of War.[58] He will be released from prison at Rennes the following day[58] but not fully exonerated until 1906. The patent for the first water meter is granted to Edwin Ford. September 21 A special session of the Orange Free State's parliament meets at Bloemfontein to discuss war with the British Empire. At the same time, three British transports depart from Bombay with troops to the Cape Colony.[62] The Dominion Line steamer Scotsman sinks in the Strait of Belle Isle, killing 15 women and children. September 25 – A Serbian court sentences 30 people convicted for conspiracy to attempt to assassinate the former King Milan, with the two leaders being sentenced to death.[62] September 26 – General Manuel Guzman Alvarez of the Venezuelan state of Sucre joins with General Cipriano Castro in a revolt against the Venezuelan government.[62] September 28 – Austrian auto designer Ferdinand Porsche attracts worldwide attention when his first car, the Porsche P1, wins the Berlin Road Race 18 minutes ahead of the second-place finisher. September 29 – The Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW) is founded in the U.S. by Spanish–American War veteran James C. Putnam as the American Veterans of Foreign Service.[63] September 30 – The 1899 Ceram earthquake kills 3,864 people on Seram Island, through a tsunami after a 7.8 magnitude earthquake. The villages of Paulohy-Samasuru and Mani, with a combined population of 2,400 people, are swept away by a 29 foot (8.8 m) wave.[64] October Main article: October 1899 October 1 – Possession of the Mariana Islands is formally transferred from Spain to Germany, which purchased the archipelago (with the exception of Guam) from Spain for 837,500 German gold marks and become part of German New Guinea.[65] October 3 – The boundary dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana is resolved by a binding award from the International Tribunal of Arbitration of five neutral jurists agreed upon by the United Kingdom and the United Venezuelan States.[66] October 8 – The South African Republic telegraphs a three-day ultimatum to the U.K., demanding an arbitration of issues and a pullback of troops from the borders between the Republic and the adjoining Cape Colony, Natal and Bechuanaland by October 11.[67] October 10 – The French Sudan is divided into two smaller administrative units, Middle Niger (which later becomes the nations of Niger and Gambia) and Upper Senegal (which becomes the nations of Senegal and Mali) October 11 – In South Africa, the Second Boer War between the United Kingdom and the Boers of the Transvaal and Orange Free State begins as the Boers invade the British colony of Natal. October 13 – The Second Boer War extends into the British Bechuanaland Protectorate (modern-day Botswana) as the siege of Mafeking begins. October 14 – The Boer invasion of the Cape Colony begins with the siege of Kimberley. October 15 – French Army officer Ferdinand de Béhagle is put to death by Sudanese warlord Rabih az-Zubayr, prompting a French expedition to be led against Rabih. October 17 – The Thousand Days' War begins in Colombia as Colombian Liberal Party soldiers led by General Rafael Uribe Uribe, with support from Venezuela, begin a fight against the government of National Party president Manuel Antonio Sanclemente. The war will continue for 1,130 days. October 18 – The Boxer Rebellion begins in China as the Battle of Senluo Temple is fought between more than 4,000 Imperial Chinese Army troops and at least 1,000 rebels from the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists.[68] October 19 Robert H. Goddard receives his inspiration to develop the first rocket capable of reaching outer space, after viewing his yard from high in a tree and imagining "how wonderful it would be to make some device which had even the possibility of ascending to Mars, and how it would look on a small scale, if sent up from the meadow at my feet."[69] Boer troops commanded by Johannes Kock capture the railway station in Elandslaagte and cut the telegraph line between the British Army headquarters at Ladysmith and its station at Dundee. October 20 – In the first major clash of the Second Boer War, the Battle of Talana Hill, the British Army drives the Boers from a hilltop position, but with heavy casualties, including their commanding general Sir Penn Symons. October 21 – The Battle of Elandslaagte is fought in Natal, as the British Army recaptures the railway station from Boers, then proceeds toward the fortress of Ladysmith. South African General Jan Kock is fatally wounded in the battle and dies 10 days later.[70] October 24 The sinking of the ship Cisneros by the Colombian Navy warship Hércules drowns more than 200 Liberal rebels during the Battle of Magdalena River.[71] President Steyn of the South African Republic proclaims the annexation of the northern portion of the Cape Colony above the Vaal River.[70] October 26 Indirect fire is used for the first time in battle.[72] British gunners in the Second Boer War fire a cannon on a high trajectory toward the Boer Army, with the objective of having the shell come down on the enemy. The foundering of the British steamer Zurich off of the coast of Norway kills 16 of the 17 crew aboard, with only the captain surviving.[70] October 29 – The Battle of Kouno ends after two days in Chad, as French Army Captain Émile Gentil leads a force of 344 troops against a much larger force of Sudanese Arabs, led by the warlord Rabih az-Zubayr. Gentil routs the Sudanese.[73] October 30 – The Battle of Ladysmith begins as British troops at the Ladysmith fort attempt to make a preemptive strike against a larger force of South African Republic and Orange Free State troops that is gradually surrounding the fort. After sustaining 400 casualties and having 800 men captured, the British retreat back to the fort where a 118-day siege begins on November 2. November November 2 – The siege of Ladysmith begins as armies of the two Boer republics cut telegraph lines connecting Ladysmith to the British colony, and try over the next 118 days to starve out the British force.[70] The British defenders will hold the fort without surrendering, until the siege is broken on February 28, 1900 by a force led by Redvers Buller. November 4 – The Alpha Sigma Tau sorority is founded in Ypsilanti, Michigan. November 5 The U.S. Army wins the battle to capture the Philippine Republic's capital at Angeles City, after nearly three months of fighting. It also captures the Philippine stronghold of Magalang. The Belgian Antarctic Expedition is concluded. November 6 – The Boers begin the shelling of the British settlement at Mafeking.[70] November 7 Representatives of the U.S., the UK and Germany sign a treaty for arbitration of Samoa's claims for damages, with King Oscar of Sweden and Norway agreeing to become the neutral arbitrator.[70] Joshua Lionel Cohen is awarded a U.S. patent for the flash-lamp. (October 26 Old Style) – Anton Chekhov's Uncle Vanya receives its Russian metropolitan première at the Moscow Art Theatre. Moscow Art Theatre production of Uncle Vanya November 8 – The Bronx Zoological Park opens in New York City. November 9 – The Boer attack on Ladysmith is repulsed by British artillery, with the Boers sustaining 800 killed and wounded.[70] November 11 – The Battle of San Jacinto is fought in the Philippines. The battle demonstrates the limitations to the heavy, wheel-mounted Gatling gun, in uneven territory. November 12 – The city of Puerto Cabello in Venezuela surrenders to General Cipriano Castro after heavy fighting.[70] November 13 – In Colombia's Thousand Days' War, the Battle of Bucaramanga ends with a victory of conservative forces over Liberal Party rebels.[74] November 14 – The first aerial crossing of the Mediterranean Sea is made by Louis Capazza and Alphonse Fondère in Capazza's balloon. November 15 – The American Line's SS St. Paul becomes the first ocean liner to report her imminent arrival by wireless telegraphy. November 21 – Garret Hobart, the incumbent 24th vice president of the United States, dies of cardiovascular disease. November 25 – The Battle of Umm Diwaykarat, a decisive British and Egyptian victory, ends the Mahdist War in the Sudan, as the Khalifa of Sudan, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, is killed. November 28 The British Army sustains heavy losses in the Battle of Modder River, despite routing the Boers.[75] The Philippine Republic capital at Bayambang surrenders as the government flees the Fourth Cavalry of the U.S. Army. November 29 – The FC Barcelona association football club is founded.[76] November 30 – The first women to serve, in uniform, in the armed forces of any nation begins service as part of the Canadian Militia Expeditionary Force to Cape Town to serve in the Boer War. Georgina Fane Pope and three other women are enlisted as army nurses. [77] December Main article: December 1899 December 2 Philippine–American War – Battle of Tirad Pass ("The Filipino Thermopylae"): General Gregorio del Pilar and his troops are able to guard the retreat of Philippine President Emilio Aguinaldo, before being wiped out. During the new moon, a near-grand conjunction of the classical planets and several binocular Solar System bodies occur. The Sun, Moon, Mercury, Mars and Saturn are all within 15° of each other, with Venus 5° ahead of this conjunction and Jupiter 15° behind. December 9 – An explosion kills 32 coal miners at the Carbon Hill mines in Carbonado, Washington.[75] December 10 Four-month-old Sobhuza II begins his 82-year reign as King of Swaziland. Battle of Stormberg: The British Army makes a disastrous attempt to surprise the Boer position in Natal and suffers 687 losses.[75] The college fraternity Delta Sigma Phi is founded at the City College of New York. December 11 – Second Boer War: Battle of Magersfontein – Boers defeat British forces trying to relieve the Siege of Kimberley. December 13 – General French routs Boer troops that had been advancing into the Cape Colony toward Noupoort.[75] December 15 Battle of Colenso: Britain's General Buller loses 1,097 officers and men in Natal, the third serious British reverse in South Africa in this "Black Week".[75] Glasgow School of Art, the most notable work of Scottish architect Charles Rennie Mackintosh, opens.[78] December 16 – The Association football club A.C. Milan is founded. December 18 – The British War Office sends Lord Roberts to South Africa to become the commander of British forces, with Lord Kitchener to be second in command, with 100,000 additional men.[75] December 22 More than 40 schoolchildren from Belgium drown in the capsizing of a boat near the French town of Frelinghien.[79] A fire kills 16 children in Quincy, Illinois.[79] December 23 – 40 coal miners are killed in an explosion near Brownsville, Pennsylvania.[79] December 24 – The wreck of the British steamship Ariosto off the coast of Hatteras, North Carolina drowns 21 of the crew.[79] Date unknown Riro, last of the Kings of Easter Island, on a visit to Valparaíso, Chile, dies either from alcohol poisoning, or an assassination plot by the Chilean government.[80] Oxo beef stock cubes are introduced, by Liebig's Extract of Meat Company. Giros-Loucheur Group, predecessor of Vinci, a worldwide construction and infrastructure industry, founded in France.[citation needed] Timken Roller Bearing Company, predecessor of worldwide parts brand Timken, is founded in Missouri.[81] The 1899–1923 cholera pandemic begins, spreading to Europe, Asia and Africa. Births Births January · February · March · April · May · June · July · August · September · October · November · December January Antal Páger Max Theiler January 1 – Jack Beresford, British Olympic rower (d. 1977) January 6 – Heinrich Nordhoff, German automotive engineer (d. 1968) January 7 – Francis Poulenc, French composer (d. 1963) January 8 – S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, 4th Prime Minister of Sri Lanka (d. 1959) January 11 – Eva Le Gallienne, English actress (d. 1991) January 12 – Paul Hermann Müller, Swiss chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1965) January 14 – Carlos P. Romulo, Filipino diplomat (d. 1985) January 15 – Goodman Ace, American actor, comedian and writer (d. 1982) January 17 Al Capone, American gangster (d. 1947) Nevil Shute, English-born novelist (d. 1960) January 21 – John Bodkin Adams, British physician acquitted of murder (d. 1983) January 23 – Tom Denning, Baron Denning, English lawyer, judge and Master of the Rolls (d. 1999) January 25 – Paul-Henri Spaak, 31st Prime Minister of Belgium and 2nd secretary general of NATO (d. 1972) January 27 – Béla Guttmann, Hungarian-born Association football coach (d. 1981) January 29 – Antal Páger, Hungarian actor (d. 1986) January 30 – Max Theiler, South African virologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1972) February Café Filho Ramon Novarro February 3 Café Filho, 18th President of Brazil (d. 1970) Lao She, Chinese author (d. 1966) Doris Speed, British actress (d. 1994) Mildred Trotter, American forensic anthropologist (d. 1991) February 6 – Ramon Novarro, Mexican-born American actor (k. 1968) February 10 – Cevdet Sunay, 5th President of Turkey (d. 1982) February 15 Georges Auric, French composer (d. 1983) Lillian Disney, American artist (d. 1997) Gale Sondergaard, American actress (d. 1985) February 17 – Jibanananda Das, Indian poet, writer, novelist and essayist in Bengali (d. 1954) February 18 – Sir Arthur Bryant, British historian (d. 1985) February 22 Joseph Le Brix, French aviator, naval officer (d. 1931) Ian Clunies Ross, Australian scientist (d. 1959) February 23 – Erich Kästner, German writer (d. 1974) February 24 – Mikhail Gromov, Soviet aviator (d. 1985) February 26 – Alec Campbell, Australian WWI soldier, last Australian Gallipoli veteran (d. 2002) February 27 – Charles Best, Canadian medical scientist (d. 1978) March Frederik IX of Denmark Gloria Swanson Lavrentiy Beria March 8 Eric Linklater, British author (d. 1974) Elmer Keith, American rancher, author, and firearms enthusiast (d. 1984) March 11 – King Frederik IX of Denmark (d. 1972) March 13 – John Hasbrouck Van Vleck, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1980) March 21 – Panagiotis Pipinelis, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1970) March 24 – Dorothy C. Stratton, American director of the SPARS during World War II (d. 2006) March 25 – Burt Munro, New Zealand motorcycle racer (d. 1978) March 27 – Gloria Swanson, American actress (d. 1983) March 28 Gussie Busch, American founder of the Anheuser-Busch Brewery Company (d. 1989) Harold B. Lee, 11th president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1973) March 29 – Lavrentiy Beria, Soviet official (d. 1953) April Duke Ellington April 7 – Robert Casadesus, French pianist (d. 1972) April 9 – Hans Jeschonnek, German general (d. 1943) April 11 – Percy Lavon Julian, American scientist (d. 1975) April 16 – Osman Achmatowicz, Polish chemist (d. 1988) April 19 – George O'Brien, American actor (d. 1985) April 20 – Alan Arnett McLeod, Canadian soldier, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1918) April 22 – Vladimir Nabokov, Russian-born American writer (d. 1977) April 23 – Bertil Ohlin, Swedish economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1979) April 24 – Oscar Zariski, Russian mathematician (d. 1986) April 27 – Walter Lantz, American animator, creator of Woody Woodpecker (d. 1994) April 29 – Duke Ellington, African-American jazz musician, bandleader (d. 1974) May Fred Astaire Suzanne Lenglen May 3 – Aline MacMahon, American actress (d. 1991) May 8 – Friedrich Hayek, Austrian economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1992) May 10 – Fred Astaire, American singer, dancer and actor (d. 1987) May 12 – Indra Devi, Baltic-born yogi and actress (d. 2002) May 20 – John Marshall Harlan II, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (d. 1971) May 24 Suzanne Lenglen, French tennis player (d. 1938) Kazi Nazrul Islam, Bangladeshi national poet (d. 1976) May 30 – Irving Thalberg, American film producer (d. 1936) June June 2 – Lotte Reiniger, German-born silhouette animator (d. 1981) June 3 – Georg von Békésy, Hungarian biophysicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1972) June 10 – Ruth Poll, American lyricist and music publisher (d. 1955)[82] June 11 – Yasunari Kawabata, Japanese writer, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature (d. 1972) June 12 – Fritz Albert Lipmann, German-born American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1986) June 13 – Carlos Chávez, Mexican composer (d. 1978) June 16 – Helen Traubel, American soprano (d. 1972) June 24 – Bruce Marshall, Scottish writer (d. 1987) June 25 – Arthur Tracy, American singer (d. 1997) June 26 – Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna of Russia (d. 1918)[83] June 27 – Juan Trippe, American airline pioneer, entrepreneur (d. 1981) June 30 – Madge Bellamy, American actress (d. 1990) July George Cukor James Cagney Ernest Hemingway July 1 Thomas A. Dorsey, American musician (d. 1993) Charles Laughton, English-American stage, film actor (d. 1962) Konstantinos Tsatsos, President of Greece (d. 1987) July 4 – Austin Warren, American literary critic. (d. 1986) July 5 – Marcel Achard, French playwright, scriptwriter (d. 1974) July 6 – Susannah Mushatt Jones, American supercentenarian, last remaining American born in the 19th century and world's oldest living person (d. 2016) July 7 George Cukor, American film director (d. 1983) Jesse Wallace, American naval officer, 29th Governor of American Samoa (d. 1961) July 11 – E. B. White, American writer (d. 1985) July 12 – E. D. Nixon, African-American civil rights leader and union organizer (d. 1987) July 15 – Seán Lemass, Taoiseach of Ireland (d. 1971) July 16 – Božidar Jakac, Slovene painter, photographer and filmmaker. (d. 1989) July 17 – James Cagney, American actor and dancer (d. 1986) July 21 Hart Crane, American poet (suicide 1932)[84] Ernest Hemingway, American author, journalist (suicide 1961) July 22 – King Sobhuza II of Swaziland (d. 1982) July 23 – Gustav Heinemann, President of West Germany (d. 1976) July 24 – Chief Dan George, Canadian actor, writer and tribal chief of the Tsleil-Waututh First Nation (d. 1981) July 29 – Alice Terry, American film actress (d. 1987) August P. L. Travers Sir Alfred Hitchcock August 4 – Ezra Taft Benson, American religious leader, president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1994) August 9 Paul Kelly, American stage, film actor (d. 1956) P. L. Travers, Australian-born British author (Mary Poppins) (d. 1996) August 13 – Alfred Hitchcock, British-born American film director (d. 1980) August 14 – Alma Reville, English screenwriter, wife of Alfred Hitchcock (d. 1982) August 16 – Glenn Strange, American actor (d. 1973) August 19 – Colleen Moore, American actress (d. 1988) August 24 Jorge Luis Borges, Argentine writer (d. 1986) Albert Claude, Belgian biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1983) August 26 – Rufino Tamayo, Mexican painter (d. 1991)[85] August 27 C. S. Forester, English novelist (d. 1966) Byron Foulger, American actor (d. 1970) August 28 – Charles Boyer, French actor (d. 1978) August 29 – Lyman Lemnitzer, American general (d. 1988) August 31 – Boots Adams, American business magnate, president of Phillips Petroleum Company (d. 1975) September Sir Macfarlane Burnet Jimmie Davis September 1 – Andrei Platonov, Russian-born Soviet writer (d. 1951) September 3 – Macfarlane Burnet, Australian biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1985) September 8 – May McAvoy, American actress and singer (d. 1984) September 9 – Brassaï, French photographer (d. 1984) September 11 – Jimmie Davis, American politician and musician, Governor of Louisiana (d. 2000) September 13 – Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Romanian fascist politician, leader of the Iron Guard (d. 1938) September 18 – Ida Kamińska, Polish actress, playwright and translator (d. 1980) September 23 – Tom C. Clark, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (d. 1977) September 24 – Bessie Braddock, British politician (d. 1970)[86] October October 1 – Ernest Haycox, American writer (d. 1950) October 3 – Gertrude Berg, American actress (d. 1966)[87] October 4 – Franz Jonas, President of Austria (d. 1974) October 5 – George, Duke of Mecklenburg, head of the House of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (d. 1963) October 9 – Bruce Catton, American Civil War historian, Pulitzer Prize winner (d. 1978) October 19 – Miguel Ángel Asturias, Guatemalan writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1974) October 24 – László Bíró, Hungarian inventor of the ballpoint pen (d. 1985) October 29 – Akim Tamiroff, Armenian actor (d. 1972) November Iskander Mirza Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei November 7 – Stanisław Swianiewicz, Polish economist and historian (d. 1997) November 11 – Pat O'Brien, American actor (d. 1983) November 13 Vera Caspary, American screenwriter, novelist, playwright (d. 1987) Iskandar Ali Mirza, 1st president of Pakistan (d. 1969) November 17 – Douglas Shearer, Canadian-born American film sound engineer (d. 1971) November 18 – Eugene Ormandy, Hungarian-American conductor (d. 1985) November 19 – Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei, Shia Ayatollah (d. 1992) November 22 – Hoagy Carmichael, American composer, pianist, singer, actor and bandleader (d. 1981) November 24 – Soraya Tarzi, Afghan feminist, queen (d. 1968) November 26 Richard Hauptmann, German murderer of Charles Lindbergh Jr. (d. 1936) Maurice Rose, American general (d. 1945) November 29 – Emma Morano, Italian supercentenarian, oldest Italian ever, last surviving person born in the 1800s (d. 2017) December Sir Noël Coward Humphrey Bogart December 1 – Tommy Lucchese, American gangster (d. 1967) December 2 – John Barbirolli, English conductor (d. 1970) December 3 – Hayato Ikeda, prime minister of Japan (d. 1965) December 8 – John Qualen, Canadian-American actor (d. 1987) December 9 – Jean de Brunhoff, French writer (d. 1937) December 14 – DeFord Bailey, American country musician (d. 1982) December 15 – Harold Abrahams, British athlete (d. 1978)[88] December 16 Noël Coward, English actor, playwright and composer (d. 1973) Aleksander Zawadzki, President of Poland (d. 1964) December 18 – Peter Wessel Zapffe, Norwegian author and philosopher (d. 1990) December 19 – Martin Luther King Sr., American Baptist pastor, missionary, and figure in the civil rights movement (d. 1984) December 20 – John Sparkman, American politician (d. 1985)[89] December 25 Humphrey Bogart, American actor (d. 1957)[90] Frank Ferguson, American actor (d. 1978) December 28 – Eugeniusz Bodo, Polish actor (d. 1943) December 29 – Nie Rongzhen, Chinese Communist military leader (d. 1992) Date unknown Nureddine Rifai, 25th Prime Minister of Lebanon (d. 1980) Deaths Deaths January · February · March · April · May · June · July · August · September · October · November · December January–February Alfred Sisley Paul Reuter Emma Hardinge Britten Antonio Luna January 1 – William Hugh Smith, 72, Governor of Alabama during Reconstruction, 1868 to 1870, former Alabama legislator who joined the Union Army January 10 Jonathan B. Turner, 93, U.S. educational reformer and champion of land grant universities, co-founder of the University of Illinois William A. Russell, 67, U.S. Congressman and industrialist who was the first president of the International Paper Company January 13 – Nelson Dingley Jr., 66, U.S. politician and Congressman for Maine since 1881, author of the Dingley Act for increased tariffs January 14 – Nubar Pasha, 74, the first Prime Minister of Egypt (1878–79, 1884–88 and 1894–95) January 17 – Jedediah Hotchkiss, 70, American military cartographer for the Confederacy during the American Civil War January 23 – Romualdo Pacheco, 77, the only Hispanic Governor of the U.S. state of California (in 1875); (b. 1831) January 29 – Alfred Sisley, 59, French impressionist landscape painter, died of throat cancer (b. 1839) January 30 –Harry Bates, 48, British sculptor (b. 1850) January 31 – Princess Marie Louise of Bourbon-Parma, 29, princess consort of Bulgaria, from complications of childbirth (b. 1870) February 6 Leo von Caprivi, Chancellor of Germany (b. 1831) Alfred, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (b. 1874) February 11 – Teuku Umar, Leader of Acehnese Rebellion (b. 1854) February 16 – Félix Faure, President of France (b. 1841) February 18 – Sophus Lie, Norwegian mathematician; see Lie group.(b. 1842) February 23 – Gaëtan de Rochebouët, Prime Minister of France (b. 1813) February 25 – Paul Reuter, German-born news agency founder (b. 1816) March–April March 3 – William P. Sprague, American politician from Ohio (b. 1827) March 6 – Princess Kaʻiulani, last monarch of Hawaii (b. 1875) March 12 – Sir Julius Vogel, Premier of New Zealand (b. 1835) March 18 – Othniel Charles Marsh, American palaeontologist (b. 1831) March 20 – Martha M. Place, American murderer, first woman executed in the electric chair (b. 1849) March 24 – Marie Goegg-Pouchoulin, Swiss national, international women's rights activist, pacifist (b. 1826) April 1 – Charles C. Carpenter, American admiral (b. 1834) April 5 – T. E. Ellis, Welsh politician (b. 1859) April 6 – Garret Parry, Irish piper (b. 1847) April 7 – Pieter Rijke, Dutch physicist (b. 1812) April 11 – Lascăr Catargiu, 4-time prime minister of Romania (b. 1823) April 16 – Emilio Jacinto, Filipino poet, revolutionary (b. 1875) April 22 Sir John Mowbray, 1st Baronet, British MP and Father of the House of Commons since 1898 (b. 1815) Johann Köler, Estonian painter (b. 1826) April 24 – Richard J. Oglesby, U.S. politician, three-time Governor of Illinois for whom the town of Oglesby, Illinois is named (b. 1824) April 26 – Count Karl Sigmund von Hohenwart, Minister-President of Austria, 1871 (b. 1824) April 30 – Lewis Baker, U.S. politician and diplomat (b. 1832) May–June May 16 – William Nast, German-born religious leader and founder of the German Methodist Church in the U.S. (b. 1807) May 19 – Charles R. Buckalew, American politician and diplomat (b. 1821) May 24 – William Brett, 1st Viscount Esher, British law lord (b. 1817) May 25 – Emilio Castelar y Ripoll, President of the First Spanish Republic (b. 1832) June 3 – Johann Strauss Jr., Austrian composer (b. 1825) June 4 – Eugenio Beltrami, Italian mathematician (b. 1835) June 5 – Antonio Luna, Filipino general (assassinated) (b. 1866) June 7 – Augustin Daly, American theatrical impresario, playwright (b. 1838) June 10 – Ernest Chausson, French composer (b. 1855) July–August Robert Bunsen Gregorio del Pilar Frances Laughton Mace July 1 – Sir William Flower, British museum curator and surgeon (b. 1831) July 2 – General Horatio Wright, 79, American engineer, U.S. Army officer in the American Civil War, Chief of Engineers for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (b. 1820) July 4 – Sir Alexander Armstrong, 81, Irish-born physician, Royal Navy officer and Arctic explorer (b. 1818) July 10 Grand Duke George Alexandrovich of Russia, 28, Tsarevich and heir to the throne of Russia as younger brother of Nicholas II (b. 1871) Albert Grévy, French statesman and Governor-General of Algeria 1879-1881 (b. 1823) July 16 Margaretta Riley, British botanist (b. 1804) William Preston Johnston, 68, American college administrator and first president of Tulane University (b. 1831) July 18 – Horatio Alger Jr., American writer (b. 1832) July 20 – Frances Laughton Mace, American poet (b. 1836)[91] July 21 – Robert G. Ingersoll, American politician (b. 1833) July 27 – Tassilo von Heydebrand und der Lasa, German chess-master (b. 1818) August 4 – Karl, Freiherr von Prel, German philosopher (b. 1839) August 9 Sir Edward Frankland, British chemist (b. 1825) Grand Duke George Alexandrovich of Russia, Russian Grand Duke, younger brother of Nicholas II of Russia (b. 1871) August 16 – Robert Bunsen, German chemist (b. 1811) September–October September 2 – Ernest Renshaw, British tennis player (b. 1861) September 12 – Cornelius Vanderbilt II, American railway magnate (b. 1843) September 13 – Sarah Warren Keeler, American educator of the deaf-mute (b. 1844) September 17 – Charles Alfred Pillsbury, American industrialist (b. 1842) September 28 – Giovanni Segantini, Italian painter (b. 1858) October 2 Emma Hardinge Britten, British writer (b. 1823) Percy Pilcher, British aviation pioneer, glider pilot (b. 1866) October 7 – Deodato Arellano, Filipino Propagandist (b. 1844) October 14 Anna Cabot Lowell Quincy Waterston, American diarist (b. 1812) Nicolai Hanson, Norwegian zoologist and Antarctic explorer (b. 1870) October 22 – Ella Hoag Brockway Avann, American educator (b. 1853) October 23 – Sir Penn Symons, British general (died of wounds) (b. 1843) October 25 – Grant Allen, Canadian science writer and novelist (b. 1848) October 30 Sir Arthur Blomfield, British architect (b. 1829) William Henry Webb, American industrialist, philanthropist (b. 1816) October 31 – Anton Berindei, Wallachian-born Romanian general and politician (b. 1838) November–December Garret Hobart November 16 Vincas Kudirka, Lithuanian doctor, poet and national hero (b. 1858) Julius Hermann Moritz Busch, German publicist (b. 1821) November 21 – Garret Hobart, 24th Vice President of the United States (b. 1844) November 23 – Thomas Henry Ismay, British owner of the White Star Line (b. 1837) November 24 – Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, Sudanese political, religious leader (killed in battle) (b. 1846) November 28 – Virginia Oldoini, Countess of Castiglione (b. 1837) December 2 – Gregorio del Pilar, Filipino general (killed in battle) (b. 1875) December 10 – King Ngwane V of Swaziland (b. 1876) December 19 – Henry Ware Lawton, American general (killed in action) (b. 1843) December 22 Pascual Ortega Portales, Chilean painter (b. 1839) Dwight L. Moody, American evangelist (b. 1837)[92] Hugh Grosvenor, 1st Duke of Westminster, British landowner and politician (b. 1825) December 30 Eugène Bertrand, 65, French comedian and opera house director (b. 1834) December 31 Jane Mitchel, Irish nationalist (b. c. 1820) Carl Millöcker, 57, Viennese composer (b. 1842) Manuel Carrillo Tablas, 77, Mexican philanthropist and mayor of Orizaba (b. 1822) Date unknown Ellen Morton Littlejohn, American quilter (b. c. 1826) References "Canadian Pacific Railway", by Donald M. Bain, in Encyclopedia of North American Railroads. ed. by William D. Middleton, et al. (Indiana University Press, 2007) p. 197 "R.M.S. Oceanic (II)". Jeff Newman. Archived from the original on September 19, 2009. Retrieved January 18, 2010. ""Vessel Goes Down at Night During a Squall and Is Not Missed until Morning", San Francisco Call, January 15, 1899". Archived from the original on October 27, 2022. Retrieved April 17, 2022. Anton A. 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Verbeek, Kort verslag over de aarden zeebeving op Ceram, den 30sten september 1899 (Brief Report on the Earthquake and Seaquake on Ceram, September 30th, 1899) (Batavia Landsdrukkerij, 1900) p. 1–11 "Pacific Islands", in The Statesman's Year-Book for the Year 1946 (Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1946) p. 1057 Cedric L Joseph, Anglo-American Diplomacy and the Reopening of the Guyana-Venezuela Boundary Controversy, 1961-1966 (Trafford Publishing, 2008) Winston Groom, The Allies: Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin, and the Unlikely Alliance That Won World War II (National Geographic Society, 2018) p. 50 Joseph W. Esherick, The Origins of the Boxer Uprising(University of California Press, 1987) p. 250 Milton Lehman, Robert H. Goddard: Pioneer of Space Research (Da Capo Press, 1988) p. 16 The American Monthly Review of Reviews (December 1899) pp. 662-666 Guillermo Plazas Olarte, La guerra civil de los Mil Días: Estudio militar (in Spanish) (Academia Boyacense de Historia, 1985) p. 47 Frank W. Sweet, The Evolution of Indirect Fire (Backintyme Publishing, 2000) pp. 28–33 Émile Gentil, La chute de l'empire de Rabah (reprinted by Hachette Press, 1971) pp. 574–584 Guillermo Plazas Olarte, La Guerra Civil de los Mil Días: Estudio Militar (The 1000-days Civil War: A Military Study) (Academia Boyacense de Historia, 1985) p. 54 The American Monthly Review of Reviews (January 1900) pp. 23-26 "The hidden story behind the founder of Barcelona" Archived September 21, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, Unidad Editorial Información Deportiva (MARCA.com), July 20, 2016 Patrick Robertson, Robertson's Book of Firsts: Who Did What for the First Time (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2011) "Congratulations to the Glasgow School of Art as they celebrate 100th anniversary of the Mackintosh Building". Museums Galleries Scotland. December 15, 2009. Archived from the original on February 4, 2010. Retrieved July 7, 2010. The American Monthly Review of Reviews (February 1900) pp. 153-157 Fischer, Steven R., Island at the End of the World, p. 153 "Our Story | The History of The Timken Company since 1899". Retrieved July 15, 2020. "Ruth Poll Dies". The Cash Box. March 26, 1955. p. 17. Retrieved March 19, 2023. "BBC Two - Russia's Lost Princesses - Beyond the portraits". BBC. Retrieved January 14, 2022. "Hart Crane | American poet". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved July 27, 2021. "Rufino Arellanes Tamayo" (in Spanish). El Colegio Nacional. Retrieved June 1, 2019. Ingham, Robert (2005). "Braddock [née Bamber], Elizabeth Margaret". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/37214. Retrieved October 22, 2015. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) (subscription required) "Gertrude Berg | American actress, producer and screenwriter". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 25, 2021. "Harold Abrahams". Olympedia. OlyMADMen. Retrieved August 18, 2024. "SPARKMAN, John Jackson 1899 – 1985". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Retrieved August 18, 2024. Mikkelson, David (May 3, 2002). "Was Humphrey Bogart Born on Christmas Day?". Fact Check. Snopes. Retrieved August 17, 2024. Appletons' Annual Cyclopedia and Register of Important Events of the Year ... D. Appleton & Company. 1900. p. 619. Notice de personne "Moody, Dwight Lyman (1837-1899)" [Person record "Moody, Dwight Lyman (1837-1899)"] (in French). Bibliothèque nationale de France. April 10, 2015. Retrieved August 17, 2024. Authority control databases: National Edit this at Wikidata United StatesIsrael Netflix Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Appearance hide Text Small Standard Large Width Standard Wide Color (beta) Automatic Light Dark Page semi-protected From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the streaming service. For the company, see Netflix, Inc. For other uses, see Netflix (disambiguation). Netflix Logo for the Netflix service. Logo used since 2014 Screenshot Screenshot of Netflix's English website in December 2023, including Stranger Things as its featured media Type of site OTT streaming platform Available in 45 languages List of languages Arabic (Egyptian and Modern Standard) Basque (content only) Catalan (content only) Chinese (Cantonese and Mandarin) Croatian Czech Danish Dutch English Filipino Finnish French German Greek Hebrew Hindi[1] Hungarian Indonesian[2] Italian Japanese Kannada Korean Malay Malayalam Marathi (content only) Norwegian (Bokmål) Polish Portuguese Romanian Russian Serbian (content only) Spanish Swedish Tamil Telugu Thai Turkish Ukrainian Urdu (content only) Vietnamese Headquarters Los Gatos, California, U.S. Country of origin United States Area served Worldwide (except China, Crimea, North Korea, Russia, and Syria)[3][4] Industry Entertainmentmass media Products Streaming mediavideo on demanddigital distribution Services Film productionfilm distributiontelevision productiontelevision distribution Parent Netflix, Inc. URL netflix.com Edit this at Wikidata Commercial Yes Registration Required Users Increase 282.7 million (as of October 17, 2024)[5] Launched August 29, 1997; 27 years ago (as a DVD e-commerce) January 16, 2007; 17 years ago (as a streaming service) Current status Active ASN 2906 Netflix is an American subscription video on-demand over-the-top streaming service. The service primarily distributes original and acquired films and television shows from various genres, and it is available internationally in multiple languages.[6] Launched in 2007, nearly a decade after Netflix, Inc. began its pioneering DVD-by-mail movie rental service, Netflix is the most-subscribed video on demand streaming media service, with 282.7 million paid memberships in more than 190 countries as of 2024.[5][7] By 2022, "Netflix Original" productions accounted for half of its library in the United States and the namesake company had ventured into other categories, such as video game publishing of mobile games through its flagship service. As of 2023, Netflix is the 23rd most-visited website in the world, with 23.66% of its traffic coming from the United States, followed by the United Kingdom at 5.84%, and Brazil at 5.64%.[8][9] History For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Netflix. Netflix logo history First logo, used from 1997 to 2000 Second logo, used from 2000 to 2001 Third logo, used from 2001 to 2014 Fourth and current logo, used since 2014 Launch as a mail-based rental business (1997–2006) Marc Randolph, co-founder of Netflix and the first CEO of the company Reed Hastings, co-founder and executive chairman Netflix was founded by Marc Randolph and Reed Hastings on August 29, 1997, in Scotts Valley, California. Hastings, a computer scientist and mathematician, was a co-founder of Pure Software, which was acquired by Rational Software that year for $750 million, the then biggest acquisition in Silicon Valley history.[10] Randolph had worked as a marketing director for Pure Software after Pure Atria acquired a company where Randolph worked. He was previously a co-founder of MicroWarehouse, a computer mail-order company, as well as vice president of marketing for Borland.[11][12] Hastings and Randolph came up with the idea for Netflix while carpooling between their homes in Santa Cruz, California, and Pure Atria's headquarters in Sunnyvale.[13] Patty McCord, later head of human resources at Netflix, was also in the carpool group.[14] Randolph admired Amazon and wanted to find a large category of portable items to sell over the Internet using a similar model. Hastings and Randolph considered and rejected selling and renting VHS as too expensive to stock and too delicate to ship.[11] When they heard about DVDs, first introduced in the United States in early 1997, they tested the concept of selling or renting DVDs by mail, by mailing a compact disc to Hastings's house in Santa Cruz.[11] When the CD arrived intact, they decided to enter the $16 billion Home-video sales and rental industry.[11][13] Hastings is often quoted saying that he decided to start Netflix after being fined $40 at a Blockbuster store for being late to return a copy of Apollo 13.[13] Hastings invested $2.5 million into Netflix from the sale of Pure Atria.[15][13] Netflix launched as the first DVD rental and sales website with 30 employees and 925 titles available—nearly all DVDs published.[13][16][17] Randolph and Hastings met with Jeff Bezos, where Amazon offered to acquire Netflix for between $14 and $16 million. Fearing competition from Amazon, Randolph at first thought the offer was fair, but Hastings, who owned 70% of the company, turned it down on the plane ride home.[18][19] Initially, Netflix offered a per-rental model for each DVD but introduced a monthly subscription concept in September 1999.[20] The per-rental model was dropped by early 2000, allowing the company to focus on the business model of flat-fee unlimited rentals without due dates, late fees, shipping and handling fees, or per-title rental fees.[21] In September 2000, during the dot-com bubble, while Netflix was suffering losses, Hastings and Randolph offered to sell the company to Blockbuster for $50 million. John Antioco, CEO of Blockbuster, thought the offer was a joke and declined, saying, "The dot-com hysteria is completely overblown."[22][23] While Netflix experienced fast growth in early 2001, the continued effects of the dot-com bubble collapse and the September 11 attacks caused the company to hold off plans for its initial public offering (IPO) and to lay off one-third of its 120 employees.[24] Opened Netflix rental envelope containing a DVD copy of Coach Carter (2005) DVD players were a popular gift for holiday sales in late 2001, and demand for DVD subscription services were "growing like crazy", according to chief talent officer Patty McCord.[25] The company went public on May 23, 2002, selling 5.5 million shares of common stock at US$15.00 per share.[26] In 2003, Netflix was issued a patent by the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office to cover its subscription rental service and several extensions.[27] Netflix posted its first profit in 2003, earning $6.5 million on revenues of $272 million; by 2004, profit had increased to $49 million on over $500 million in revenues.[28] In 2005, 35,000 different films were available, and Netflix shipped 1 million DVDs out every day.[29] In 2004, Blockbuster introduced a DVD rental service, which not only allowed users to check out titles through online sites but allowed for them to return them at brick and-mortar stores.[30] By 2006, Blockbuster's service reached two million users, and while trailing Netflix's subscriber count, was drawing business away from Netflix. Netflix lowered fees in 2007.[28] While it was an urban legend that Netflix ultimately "killed" Blockbuster in the DVD rental market, Blockbuster's debt load and internal disagreements hurt the company.[30] On April 4, 2006, Netflix filed a patent infringement lawsuit in which it demanded a jury trial in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California, alleging that Blockbuster's online DVD rental subscription program violated two patents held by Netflix. The first cause of action alleged Blockbuster's infringement of copying the "dynamic queue" of DVDs available for each customer, Netflix's method of using the ranked preferences in the queue to send DVDs to subscribers, and Netflix's method permitting the queue to be updated and reordered.[31] The second cause of action alleged infringement of the subscription rental service as well as Netflix's methods of communication and delivery.[32] The companies settled their dispute on June 25, 2007; terms were not disclosed.[33][34][35][36] On October 1, 2006, Netflix announced the Netflix Prize, $1,000,000 to the first developer of a video-recommendation algorithm that could beat its existing algorithm Cinematch, at predicting customer ratings by more than 10%. On September 21, 2009, it awarded the $1,000,000 prize to team "BellKor's Pragmatic Chaos".[37] Cinematch, launched in 2000, was a system that recommended movies to its users, many of which might have been entirely new to the user.[38][39] Through its division Red Envelope Entertainment, Netflix licensed and distributed independent films such as Born into Brothels and Sherrybaby. In late 2006, Red Envelope Entertainment also expanded into producing original content with filmmakers such as John Waters.[40] Netflix closed Red Envelope Entertainment in 2008.[41][42] Transition to streaming services (2007–2012) In January 2007, the company launched a streaming media service, introducing video on demand via the Internet. However, at that time it only had 1,000 films available for streaming, compared to 70,000 available on DVD.[43] The company had for some time considered offering movies online, but it was only in the mid-2000s that data speeds and bandwidth costs had improved sufficiently to allow customers to download movies from the internet. The original idea was a "Netflix box" that could download movies overnight, and be ready to watch the next day. By 2005, Netflix had acquired movie rights and designed the box and service. But after witnessing how popular streaming services such as YouTube were despite the lack of high-definition content, the concept of using a hardware device was scrapped and replaced with a streaming concept.[44] In February 2007, Netflix delivered its billionth DVD, a copy of Babel to a customer in Texas.[45][46] In April 2007, Netflix recruited ReplayTV founder Anthony Wood, to build a "Netflix Player" that would allow streaming content to be played directly on a television rather than a desktop or laptop.[47] Hastings eventually shut down the project to help encourage other hardware manufacturers to include built-in Netflix support, which would be spun off as the digital media player product Roku.[48][49][50] In January 2008, all rental-disc subscribers became entitled to unlimited streaming at no additional cost. This change came in a response to the introduction of Hulu and to Apple's new video-rental services.[51][52][page needed] In August 2008, the Netflix database was corrupted and the company was not able to ship DVDs to customers for 3 days, leading the company to move all its data to the Amazon Web Services cloud.[53] In November 2008, Netflix began offering subscribers rentals on Blu-ray and discontinued its sale of used DVDs.[54] In 2009, Netflix streams overtook DVD shipments.[55] On January 6, 2010, Netflix agreed with Warner Bros. to delay new release rentals to 28 days after the DVDs became available for sale, in an attempt to help studios sell physical copies, and similar deals involving Universal Pictures and 20th Century Fox were reached on April 9.[56][57][58] In July 2010, Netflix signed a deal to stream movies of Relativity Media.[59] In August 2010, Netflix reached a five-year deal worth nearly $1 billion to stream films from Paramount, Lionsgate and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. The deal increased Netflix's annual spending fees, adding roughly $200 million per year. It spent $117 million in the first six months of 2010 on streaming, up from $31 million in 2009.[60] On September 22, 2010, Netflix launched in Canada, its first international market.[61][62] In November 2010, Netflix began offering a standalone streaming service separate from DVD rentals.[63] In 2010, Netflix acquired the rights to Breaking Bad, produced by Sony Pictures Television, after the show's third season, at a point where original broadcaster AMC had expressed the possibility of cancelling the show. Sony pushed Netflix to release Breaking Bad in time for the fourth season, which as a result, greatly expanded the show's audience on AMC due to new viewers bingeing on the Netflix past episodes, and doubling the viewership by the time of the fifth season. Breaking Bad is considered the first such show to have this "Netflix effect".[64] In January 2011, Netflix announced agreements with several manufacturers to include branded Netflix buttons on the remote controls of devices compatible with the service, such as Blu-ray players.[65] By May 2011, Netflix had become the largest source of Internet streaming traffic in North America, accounting for 30% of traffic during peak hours.[66][67][68][69] On July 12, 2011, Netflix announced that it would separate its existing subscription plans into two separate plans: one covering the streaming and the other DVD rental services.[70][71] The cost for streaming would be $7.99 per month, while DVD rental would start at the same price.[72] On September 11, 2011, Netflix expanded to countries in Latin America.[73][74][75] On September 18, 2011, Netflix announced its intentions to rebrand and restructure its DVD home media rental service as an independent subsidiary called Qwikster, separating DVD rental and streaming services.[76][77][78][79][80] On September 26, 2011, Netflix announced a content deal with DreamWorks Animation.[81] On October 10, 2011, Netflix announced that it would retain its DVD service under the name Netflix and that its streaming and DVD-rental plans would remain branded together, citing customer dissatisfaction with the split.[82][83] In October 2011. Netflix and The CW signed a multi-year output deal for its television shows.[84] On January 9, 2012, Netflix started its expansion to Europe, launching in the United Kingdom and Ireland.[85] In February 2012, Netflix reached a multi-year agreement with The Weinstein Company.[86][87] In March 2012, Netflix acquired the domain name DVD.com.[88] By 2016, Netflix rebranded its DVD-by-mail service under the name DVD.com, A Netflix Company.[89][90] In April 2012, Netflix filed with the Federal Election Commission (FEC) to form a political action committee (PAC) called FLIXPAC.[91] Netflix spokesperson Joris Evers tweeted that the intent was to "engage on issues like net neutrality, bandwidth caps, UBB and VPPA".[92][93] In June 2012, Netflix signed a deal with Open Road Films.[94][95] On August 23, 2012, Netflix and The Weinstein Company signed a multi-year output deal for RADiUS-TWC films.[96][97] In September 2012, Epix signed a five-year streaming deal with Netflix. For the initial two years of this agreement, first-run and back-catalog content from Epix was exclusive to Netflix. Epix films came to Netflix 90 days after premiering on Epix.[98] These included films from Paramount, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Lionsgate.[99][100] On October 18, 2012, Netflix launched in Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden.[101][102] On December 4, 2012, Netflix and Disney announced an exclusive multi-year agreement for first-run United States subscription television rights to Walt Disney Studios' animated and live-action films, with classics such as Dumbo, Alice in Wonderland and Pocahontas available immediately and others available on Netflix beginning in 2016.[103] Direct-to-video releases were made available in 2013.[104][105] On January 14, 2013, Netflix signed an agreement with Time Warner's Turner Broadcasting System and Warner Bros. Television to distribute Cartoon Network, Warner Bros. Animation, and Adult Swim content, as well as TNT's Dallas, beginning in March 2013. The rights to these programs were given to Netflix shortly after deals with Viacom to stream Nickelodeon and Nick Jr. Channel programs expired.[106] For cost reasons, Netflix stated that it would limit its expansion in 2013,[107] adding only one new market—the Netherlands—in September of that year. This expanded its availability to 40 territories.[108][109] Development of original programming and distribution expansion (2013–2017) This section is in list format but may read better as prose. You can help by converting this section, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (November 2021) In 2011, Netflix began its efforts into original content development. In March, it made a straight-to-series order from MRC for the political drama House of Cards, led by Kevin Spacey, outbidding U.S. cable networks. This marked the first instance of a first-run television series being specifically commissioned by the service.[110] In November the same year, Netflix added two more significant productions to its roster: the comedy-drama Orange Is the New Black, adapted from Piper Kerman's memoir,[111] and a new season of the previously cancelled Fox sitcom Arrested Development.[112] Netflix acquired the U.S. rights to the Norwegian drama Lilyhammer after its television premiere on Norway's NRK1 on January 25, 2012. Notably departing from the traditional broadcast television model of weekly episode premieres, Netflix chose to release the entire first season on February 8 of the same year.[113][114] House of Cards was released by Netflix on February 1, 2013, marketed as the first "Netflix Original" production.[115] Later that month, Netflix announced an agreement with DreamWorks Animation to commission children's television series based on its properties, beginning with Turbo: F.A.S.T., a spin-off of its film Turbo.[116][117] Orange is the New Black would premiere in July 2013; Netflix stated that Orange is the New Black had been its most-watched original series so far, with all of them having "an audience comparable with successful shows on cable and broadcast TV."[118][119] On March 13, 2013, Netflix added a Facebook sharing feature, letting United States subscribers access "Watched by your friends" and "Friends' Favorites" by agreeing.[120] This was not legal until the Video Privacy Protection Act was modified in early 2013.[121] On August 1, 2013, Netflix reintroduced the "Profiles" feature that permits accounts to accommodate up to five user profiles.[122][123][124][125] In November 2013, Marvel Television and ABC Studios announced Netflix had ordered a slate of four television series based on the Marvel Comics characters Daredevil, Jessica Jones, Iron Fist and Luke Cage. Each of the four series received an initial order of 13 episodes, and Netflix also ordered a Defenders miniseries that would tie them together. Daredevil and Jessica Jones premiered in 2015.[126][127][128] The Luke Cage series premiered on September 30, 2016, followed by Iron Fist on March 17, 2017, and The Defenders on August 18, 2017.[129][130] Marvel owner Disney later entered into other content agreements with Netflix, including acquiring its animated Star Wars series Star Wars: The Clone Wars, and a new sixth season.[131] Audio logo Duration: 5 seconds.0:05 Netflix's audio logo, used since 2014 Problems playing this file? See media help. In February 2014, Netflix began to enter into agreements with U.S. internet service providers, beginning with Comcast (whose customers had repeatedly complained of frequent buffering when streaming Netflix), in order to provide the service a direct connection to their networks.[132][133][134] In April 2014, Netflix signed Arrested Development creator Mitchell Hurwitz and his production firm The Hurwitz Company to a multi-year deal to create original projects for the service.[135] In May 2014, Netflix & Sony Pictures Animation had a major multi-deal to acquired streaming rights to produce films.[136] It also began to introduce an updated logo, with a flatter appearance and updated typography.[137] In September 2014, Netflix expanded into six new European markets, including Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, and Switzerland.[138] On September 10, 2014, Netflix participated in Internet Slowdown Day by deliberately slowing down its speed in support of net neutrality regulations in the United States.[139] In October 2014, Netflix announced a four-film deal with Adam Sandler and his Happy Madison Productions.[140] In April 2015, following the launch of Daredevil, Netflix director of content operations Tracy Wright announced that Netflix had added support for audio description, and had begun to work with its partners to add descriptions to its other original series over time.[141][142] The following year, as part of a settlement with the American Council of the Blind, Netflix agreed to provide descriptions for its original series within 30 days of their premiere, and add screen reader support and the ability to browse content by availability of descriptions.[143] In March 2015, Netflix expanded to Australia and New Zealand.[144][145] In September 2015, Netflix launched in Japan, its first country in Asia.[146][147][148] In October 2015, Netflix launched in Italy, Portugal, and Spain.[149] In January 2016, at the Consumer Electronics Show, Netflix announced a major international expansion of its service into 130 additional countries. It then had become available worldwide except China, Syria, North Korea, Kosovo and Crimea.[150] In May 2016, Netflix created a tool called Fast.com to determine the speed of an Internet connection.[151] It received praise for being "simple" and "easy to use", and does not include online advertising, unlike competitors.[152][153][154] On November 30, 2016, Netflix launched an offline playback feature, allowing users of the Netflix mobile apps on Android or iOS to cache content on their devices in standard or high quality for viewing offline, without an Internet connection.[155][156][157][158] In 2016, Netflix released an estimated 126 original series or films, more than any network or cable channel.[159] In April 2016, Hastings stated that the company planned to expand its in-house, Los Angeles-based Netflix Studios to grow its output; Hastings ruled out any potential acquisitions of existing studios.[160] In February 2017, Netflix signed a music publishing deal with BMG Rights Management, whereby BMG will oversee rights outside of the United States for music associated with Netflix original content. Netflix continues to handle these tasks in-house in the United States.[161] On April 25, 2017, Netflix signed a licensing deal with IQIYI, a Chinese video streaming platform owned by Baidu, to allow selected Netflix original content to be distributed in China on the platform.[162][163] On August 7, 2017, Netflix acquired Millarworld, the creator-owned publishing company of comic book writer Mark Millar. The purchase marked the first corporate acquisition to have been made by Netflix.[164] On August 14, 2017, Netflix entered into an exclusive development deal with Shonda Rhimes and her production company Shondaland.[165] In September 2017, Netflix announced it would offer its low-broadband mobile technology to airlines to provide better in-flight Wi-Fi so that passengers can watch movies on Netflix while on planes.[166] In September 2017, Minister of Heritage Mélanie Joly announced that Netflix had agreed to make a CA$500 million (US$400 million) investment over the next five years in producing content in Canada. The company denied that the deal was intended to result in a tax break.[167][168] Netflix realized this goal by December 2018.[169] In October 2017, Netflix iterated a goal of having half of its library consist of original content by 2019, announcing a plan to invest $8 billion on original content in 2018.[170] In October 2017, Netflix introduced the "Skip Intro" feature which allows customers to skip the intros to shows on its platform through a variety of techniques including manual reviewing, audio tagging, and machine learning.[171][172] In November 2017, Netflix signed an exclusive multi-year deal with Orange Is the New Black creator Jenji Kohan.[173] In November 2017, Netflix withdrew from co-hosting a party at the 75th Golden Globe Awards with The Weinstein Company due to the Harvey Weinstein sexual abuse cases.[174] Expansion into international productions and new productions (2017–2020) See also: International expansion of Netflix Icon used since 2016 Netflix advertising at Thong Lo BTS station, Bangkok Netflix's booth at the 2017 San Diego Comic-Con In November 2017, Netflix announced that it would be making its first original Colombian series, to be executive produced by Ciro Guerra.[175] In December 2017, Netflix signed Stranger Things director-producer Shawn Levy and his production company 21 Laps Entertainment to what sources say is a four-year deal.[176] In 2017, Netflix invested in distributing exclusive stand-up comedy specials from Dave Chappelle, Louis C.K., Chris Rock, Jim Gaffigan, Bill Burr and Jerry Seinfeld.[177] In February 2018, Netflix acquired the rights to The Cloverfield Paradox from Paramount Pictures for $50 million and launched on its service on February 4, 2018, shortly after airing its first trailer during Super Bowl LII. Analysts believed that Netflix's purchase of the film helped to make the film instantly profitable for Paramount compared to a more traditional theatrical release, while Netflix benefited from the surprise reveal.[178][179] Other films acquired by Netflix include international distribution for Paramount's Annihilation[179] and Universal's News of the World and worldwide distribution of Universal's Extinction,[180] Warner Bros.' Mowgli: Legend of the Jungle,[181] Paramount's The Lovebirds[182] and 20th Century Studios' The Woman in the Window.[183] In March, the service ordered Formula 1: Drive to Survive, a racing docuseries following teams in the Formula One world championship.[184] In March 2018, Sky UK announced an agreement with Netflix to integrate Netflix's subscription VOD offering into its pay-TV service. Customers with its high-end Sky Q set-top box and service will be able to see Netflix titles alongside their regular Sky channels.[185] In October 2022, Netflix revealed that its annual revenue from the UK subscribers in 2021 was £1.4bn.[186] In April 2018, Netflix pulled out of the Cannes Film Festival, in response to new rules requiring competition films to have been released in French theaters. The Cannes premiere of Okja in 2017 was controversial, and led to discussions over the appropriateness of films with simultaneous digital releases being screened at an event showcasing theatrical film; audience members also booed the Netflix production logo at the screening. Netflix's attempts to negotiate to allow a limited release in France were curtailed by organizers, as well as French cultural exception law—where theatrically screened films are legally forbidden from being made available via video-on-demand services until at least 36 months after their release.[187][188][189] Besides traditional Hollywood markets as well as from partners like the BBC, Sarandos said the company also looking to expand investments in non-traditional foreign markets due to the growth of viewers outside of North America. At the time, this included programs such as Dark from Germany, Ingobernable from Mexico and 3% from Brazil.[190][191][192] On May 22, 2018, former president, Barack Obama, and his wife, Michelle Obama, signed a deal to produce docu-series, documentaries and features for Netflix under the Obamas' newly formed production company, Higher Ground Productions.[193][194] In June 2018, Netflix announced a partnership with Telltale Games to port its adventure games to the service in a streaming video format, allowing simple controls through a television remote.[195][196] The first game, Minecraft: Story Mode, was released in November 2018.[197] In July 2018, Netflix earned the most Emmy nominations of any network for the first time with 112 nods. On August 27, 2018, the company signed a five-year exclusive overall deal with international best–selling author Harlan Coben.[198] On the same day, the company signed an overall deal with Gravity Falls creator Alex Hirsch.[199] In October 2018, Netflix paid under $30 million to acquire Albuquerque Studios (ABQ Studios), a $91 million film and TV production facility with eight sound stages in Albuquerque, New Mexico, for its first U.S. production hub, pledging to spend over $1 billion over the next decade to create one of the largest film studios in North America.[200][201] In November 2018, Paramount Pictures signed a multi-picture film deal with Netflix, making Paramount the first major film studio to sign a deal with Netflix.[202] A sequel to AwesomenessTV's To All the Boys I've Loved Before was released on Netflix under the title To All the Boys: P.S. I Still Love You as part of the agreement.[203] In December 2018, the company announced a partnership with ESPN Films on a television documentary chronicling Michael Jordan and the 1997–98 Chicago Bulls season titled The Last Dance. It was released internationally on Netflix and became available for streaming in the United States three months after a broadcast airing on ESPN.[204][205] In January 2019, Sex Education made its debut as a Netflix original series, receiving much critical acclaim.[206] On January 22, 2019, Netflix sought and was approved for membership into the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), making it the first streaming service to join the association.[207] In February 2019, The Haunting creator Mike Flanagan joined frequent collaborator Trevor Macy as a partner in Intrepid Pictures and the duo signed an exclusive overall deal with Netflix to produce television content.[208] On May 9, 2019, Netflix contracted with Dark Horse Entertainment to make television series and films based on comics from Dark Horse Comics.[209] In July 2019, Netflix announced that it would be opening a hub at Shepperton Studios as part of a deal with Pinewood Group.[210] In early-August 2019, Netflix negotiated an exclusive multi-year film and television deal with Game of Thrones creators and showrunners David Benioff and D.B. Weiss.[211][212][213][214][215] The first Netflix production created by Benioff and Weiss was planned as an adaptation of Liu Cixin's science fiction novel The Three-Body Problem, part of the Remembrance of Earth's Past trilogy.[216] On September 30, 2019, in addition to renewing Stranger Things for a fourth season, Netflix signed The Duffer Brothers to an overall deal covering future film and television projects for the service.[217] On November 13, 2019, Netflix and Nickelodeon entered into a multi-year agreement to produce several original animated feature films and television series based on Nickelodeon's library of characters. This agreement expanded on their existing relationship, in which new specials based on the past Nickelodeon series Invader Zim and Rocko's Modern Life (Invader Zim: Enter the Florpus and Rocko's Modern Life: Static Cling respectively) were released by Netflix. Other new projects planned under the team-up include a music project featuring Squidward Tentacles from the animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants, and films based on The Loud House and Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles.[218][219][220] The agreement with Disney ended in 2019 due to the launch of Disney+, with its Marvel productions moving exclusively to the service in 2022.[221][222] In November 2019, Netflix announced that it had signed a long-term lease to save the Paris Theatre, the last single-screen movie theater in Manhattan. The company oversaw several renovations at the theater, including new seats and a concession stand.[223][224][225] Ted Sarandos, longtime CCO and named co-CEO in 2020 In January 2020, Netflix announced a new four-film deal with Adam Sandler worth up to $275 million.[226] On February 25, 2020, Netflix formed partnerships with six Japanese creators to produce an original Japanese anime project. This partnership includes manga creator group CLAMP, mangaka Shin Kibayashi, mangaka Yasuo Ohtagaki, novelist and film director Otsuichi, novelist Tow Ubutaka, and manga creator Mari Yamazaki.[227] On March 4, 2020, ViacomCBS announced that it will be producing two spin-off films based on SpongeBob SquarePants for Netflix.[228] On April 7, 2020, Peter Chernin's Chernin Entertainment made a multi-year first-look deal with Netflix to make films.[229] On May 29, 2020, Netflix announced the acquisition of Grauman's Egyptian Theatre from the American Cinematheque to use as a special events venue.[230][231][232] In July 2020, Netflix appointed Sarandos as co-CEO.[233][234] In July 2020, Netflix invested in Black Mirror creators Charlie Brooker and Annabel Jones' new production outfit Broke And Bones.[235] In September 2020, Netflix signed a multi-million dollar deal with the Duke and Duchess of Sussex. Harry and Meghan agreed to a multi-year deal promising to create TV shows, films, and children's content as part of their commitment to stepping away from the duties of the royal family.[236][237] In September 2020, Hastings released a book about Netflix culture titled No Rules Rules: Netflix and the Culture of Reinvention, which was coauthored by Erin Meyer.[238] In December 2020, Netflix signed a first-look deal with Millie Bobby Brown to develop and star in several projects including a potential action franchise.[239] Expansion into gaming, Squid Game, new programing and new initiatives (2021–2022) In March 2021, Netflix earned the most Academy Award nominations of any studio, with 36. Netflix won seven Academy Awards, which was the most by any studio.[240] Later that year, Netflix also won more Emmys than any other network or studio with 44 wins, tying the record for most Emmys won in a single year set by CBS in 1974.[241] On April 8, 2021, Sony Pictures Entertainment announced an agreement for Netflix to hold the U.S. pay television window rights to its releases beginning in 2022, replacing Starz and expanding upon an existing agreement with Sony Pictures Animation. The agreement also includes a first-look deal for any future direct-to-streaming films being produced by Sony Pictures, with Netflix required to commit to a minimum number of them.[242][243][244] On April 27, Netflix announced that it was opening its first Canadian headquarters in Toronto.[245] The company also announced that it would open an office in Sweden as well as Rome and Istanbul to increase its original content in those regions.[246] In early-June, Netflix hosted a first-ever week-long virtual event called "Geeked Week", where it shared exclusive news, new trailers, cast appearances and more about upcoming genre titles like The Witcher, The Cuphead Show!, and The Sandman.[247] On June 7, 2021, Jennifer Lopez's Nuyorican Productions signed a multi-year first-look deal with Netflix spanning feature films, TV series, and unscripted content, with an emphasis on projects that support diverse female actors, writers, and filmmakers.[248] On June 10, 2021, Netflix announced it was launching an online store for curated products tied to the Netflix brand and shows such as Stranger Things and The Witcher.[249][250] On June 21, 2021, Steven Spielberg's Amblin Partners signed a deal with Netflix to release multiple new feature films for the streaming service.[251][252] On June 30, 2021, Powerhouse Animation Studios (the studio behind Netflix's Castlevania) announced signing a first-look deal with the streamer to produce more animated series.[253] In July 2021, Netflix hired Mike Verdu, a former executive from Electronic Arts and Facebook, as vice president of game development, along with plans to add video games by 2022.[254] Netflix announced plans to release mobile games that would be included in subscribers' service plans.[255] Trial offerings were first launched for Netflix users in Poland in August 2021, offering premium mobile games based on Stranger Things including Stranger Things 3: The Game, for free to subscribers through the Netflix mobile app.[256] On July 14, 2021, Netflix signed a first-look deal with Joey King, star of The Kissing Booth franchise, in which King will produce and develop films for Netflix via her All The King's Horses production company.[257] On July 21, 2021, Zack Snyder, director of Netflix's Army of the Dead, announced he had signed his production company The Stone Quarry to a first-look deal with Netflix; his upcoming projects include a sequel to Army of the Dead and a sci-fi adventure film titled Rebel Moon.[258][259][260][261] In 2019, he agreed to produce an anime-style web series inspired by Norse mythology.[262][263] As of August 2021, Netflix Originals made up 40% of Netflix's overall library in the United States.[264] The company announced that "TUDUM: A Netflix Global Fan Event", a three-hour virtual behind the scenes featuring first-look reveals for 100 of the streamer's series, films and specials, would have its inaugural show in late September 2021.[265][266] According to Netflix, the show garnered 25.7 million views across Netflix's 29 Netflix YouTube channels, Twitter, Twitch, Facebook, TikTok and Tudum.com.[267] Also in September, the company announced The Queen's Ball: A Bridgerton Experience, launching in 2022 in Los Angeles, Chicago, Montreal, and Washington, D.C..[268] Squid Game, a South Korean survival drama created and produced by Hwang Dong-hyuk, rapidly became the service's most-watched show within a week of its launch in many markets on September 17, 2021, including Korea, the U.S. and the United Kingdom.[192] Within its first 28 days on the service, Squid Game drew more than 111 million viewers, surpassing Bridgerton and becoming Netflix's most-watched show.[269] On September 20, 2021, Netflix signed a long-term lease with Aviva Investors to operate and expand the Longcross Studios in Surrey, UK.[270] On September 21, 2021, Netflix announced that it would acquire the Roald Dahl Story Company, which manages the rights to Roald Dahl's stories and characters, for an undisclosed price and would operate it as an independent company.[271][272][273][274] The company acquired Night School Studio, an independent video game developer, on September 28, 2021.[275] On October 13, 2021, Netflix announced the launch of the Netflix Book Club, partnering with Starbucks for a social series called But Have You Read the Book?.[276] Uzo Aduba became inaugural host of the series and announced monthly book selections set to be adapted by the streamer. Aduba speaks with the cast, creators, and authors about the book adaptation process over a cup of coffee at Starbucks.[277][278] Through October 2021, Netflix commonly reported viewership for its programming based on the number of viewers or households that watched a show in a given period (such as the first 28 days from its premiere) for at least two minutes. On the announcement of its quarterly earnings in October 2021, the company stated that it would switch its viewership metrics to measuring the number of hours that a show was watched, including rewatches, which the company said was closer to the measurements used in linear broadcast television, and thus "our members and the industry can better measure success in the streaming world."[279] Netflix officially launched mobile games on November 2, 2021, for Android users around the world. Through the app, subscribers had free access to five games, including two previously made Stranger Things titles. Netflix intends to add more games to this service over time.[280] On November 9, the collection launched for iOS.[281] Some games in the collection require an active internet connection to play, while others will be available offline. Netflix Kids' accounts will not have games available.[282] On November 16, Netflix announced the launch of "Top10 on Netflix.com", a new website with weekly global and country lists of the most popular titles on their service based on their new viewership metrics.[283] On November 22, Netflix announced that it would acquire Scanline VFX, the visual effects and animation company behind Cowboy Bebop and Stranger Things.[284] On the same day, Roberto Patino signed a deal with Netflix and established his production banner, Analog Inc., in partnership with the company. Patino's first project under the deal is a series adaptation of Image Comics' Nocterra.[285] On December 6, 2021, Netflix and Stage 32 announced that they have teamed up the workshops at the Creating Content for the Global Marketplace program.[286] On December 7, 2021, Netflix partnered with IllumiNative, a woman-led non-profit organization, for the Indigenous Producers Training Program.[287][288] On December 9, Netflix announced the launch of "Tudum", an official companion website that offers news, exclusive interviews and behind-the-scenes videos for its original television shows and films.[289] On December 13, Netflix signed a multi-year overall deal with Kalinda Vazquez.[290] On December 16, 2021, Netflix signed a multi-year creative partnership with Spike Lee and his production company 40 Acres and a Mule Filmworks to develop film and television projects.[291] In compliance with the EU Audiovisual Media Services Directive and its implementation in France, Netflix reached commitments with French broadcasting authorities and film guilds, as required by law, to invest a specific amount of its annual revenue into original French films and series. These films must be theatrically released and would not be allowed to be carried on Netflix until 15 months after their release.[292][293] In January 2022, Netflix ordered additional sports docuseries from Drive to Survive producers Box to Box Films, including a series that would follow PGA Tour golfers, and another that would follow professional tennis players on the ATP and WTA Tour circuits.[294][295] The company announced plans to acquire Next Games in March 2022 for €65 million as part of Netflix's expansions into gaming. Next Games had developed the mobile title Stranger Things: Puzzle Tales as well as two The Walking Dead mobile games.[296] Later in the month, Netflix also acquired the Texas-based mobile game developer, Boss Fight Entertainment, for an undisclosed sum.[297] On March 15, 2022, Netflix announced a partnership with Dr. Seuss Enterprises to produce five new series and specials based on Seuss properties following the success of Green Eggs and Ham.[298][299] On March 29, 2022, Netflix announced that it would open an office in Poland to serve as a hub for its original productions across Central and Eastern Europe.[300] On March 30, 2022, Netflix extended its lease agreement with Martini Film Studios, just outside Vancouver, Canada, for another five years.[301] On March 31, 2022, Netflix ordered a docuseries that would follow teams in the 2022 Tour de France, which would also be co-produced by Box to Box Films.[302] Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Netflix suspended its operations and future projects in Russia.[303][4] It also announced that it would not comply with a proposed directive by Roskomnadzor requiring all internet streaming services with more than 100,000 subscribers to integrate the major free-to-air channels (which are primarily state-owned).[304] A month later, ex-Russian subscribers filed a class action lawsuit against Netflix.[305][306] Netflix stated that 100 million households globally were sharing passwords to their account with others, and that Canada and the United States accounted for 30 million of them. Following these announcements, Netflix's stock price fell by 35 percent.[307][308][309][310][311] By June 2022, Netflix had laid off 450 full-time and contract employees as part of the company's plan to trim costs amid lower than expected subscriber growth.[312][313][314][315] On April 13, 2022, Netflix released the series Our Great National Parks, which was hosted and narrated by former US President Barack Obama.[316] It also partnered with Group Effort Initiative, a company founded by Ryan Reynolds and Blake Lively, to provide opportunities behind the camera for those in underrepresented communities.[317] On the same day, Netflix partnered with Lebanon-based Arab Fund For Arts And Culture for supporting the Arab female filmmakers. It will provide a one-time grant of $250,000 to female producers and directors in the Arab world through the company's Fund for Creative Equity.[318] Also on the same day, Netflix announced an Exploding Kittens mobile card game tied to a new animated TV series, which will launch in May.[319] Netflix formed a creative partnership with J. Miles Dale.[320] The company also formed a partnership with Japan's Studio Colorido, signing a multi-film deal to boost their anime content in Asia. The streaming giant is said to co-produce three feature films with the studio, the first of which will premiere in September 2022.[321] On April 28, the company launched its inaugural Netflix Is a Joke comedy festival, featuring more than 250 shows over 12 nights at 30-plus locations across Los Angeles, including the first-ever stand-up show at Dodger Stadium.[322][323] The first volume of Stranger Things 4 logged Netflix's biggest premiere weekend ever for an original series with 286.79 million hours viewed.[324] This was preceded by a new Stranger Things interactive experience hosted in New York City that was developed by the show's creators.[325] After the release of the second volume of Stranger Things 4 on July 1, 2022, it became Netflix's second title to receive more than one billion hours viewed.[326] On July 19, 2022, Netflix announced plans to acquire Australian animation studio Animal Logic.[327][328] That month, in collaboration with Sennheiser, Netflix began to add Ambeo 2-channel audio mixes (referred to as "spatial audio") to selected original productions, which allows simulated surround sound on stereo speakers and headphones.[329][330] On September 5, 2022, Netflix opened an office in Warsaw, Poland responsible for the service's operations in 28 markets in Central and Eastern Europe.[331] On October 4, 2022, Netflix have signed a creative partnership with Andrea Berloff and John Gatins.[332] On October 11, Netflix signed up with the Broadcasters' Audience Research Board for external measurement of viewership in the UK.[333] On October 12, Netflix signed to build a production complex at Fort Monmouth in Eatontown, New Jersey.[334] On October 18, Netflix began exploring a cloud gaming offering and opened a new gaming studio in Southern California.[335] On November 7, 2022, Netflix announced a strategic partnership with The Seven, a Japanese production company owned by TBS Holdings, to produce multiple original live-action titles for the subscribers over the next five years.[336][337] On December 12, 2022, Netflix announced that sixty-percent of its subscribers had watched a Korean drama.[338][339] CEO Ted Sarandos attributed the increase in viewership of Korean content among Americans to Korean films and dramas being "often unpredictable" and catching "the American audience by surprise".[340][341] On January 10, 2023, Netflix announced plans to open an engineering hub in its Warsaw office. The hub is to provide Netflix's creative partners with software solutions for the production of films and series.[342] In February 2023, Netflix launched a wider rollout of spatial audio, and began allowing Premium subscribers to download content for offline playback on up to six devices (expanded from four).[329][330] On March 4, 2023, Netflix broadcast its first-ever global live-streaming event, the stand-up comedy special Chris Rock: Selective Outrage.[343] Netflix reworked its viewership metrics again in June 2023. Viewership of shows was measured during the first 91 days of availability, instead of the first 28 days, and now are based on the total viewership hours divided by the total hours of the show itself. This provided more equal considerations for shorter shows and movies compared to longer ones.[344] In August 2023, the company announced Netflix Stories, a collection of interactive narrative games from Netflix series and movies such as Love is Blind, Money Heist and Virgin River.[345] Co-CEOs, discontinuation of DVD rentals, expansion of live events, WWE agreement (2023–present) In January 2023, Greg Peters and Ted Sarandos were named co-CEOs of Netflix, with Hastings assuming the role of executive chairman.[346][347] Peters previously served as COO and Chief Product Officer, while Sarandos served as Chief Content Officer.[348][349] On April 18, 2023, Netflix announced that it would discontinue its DVD-by-mail service on September 29.[350] Users of the service were able to keep the DVDs that they had received. Over its lifetime the service had sent out over 5 billion shipments.[351][352] In October 2023, Eunice Kim was promoted to Chief Product Officer and Elizabeth Stone was promoted to Chief Technology Officer.[353] That same month, amid a restructuring of its animation division, Netflix announced a multi-film agreement with Skydance Animation beginning with Spellbound (2024). The agreement partially replaces one it had with Apple TV+.[354][355] In December 2023, Netflix released its first "What We Watched: A Netflix Engagement Report", a look at viewership for every original and licensed title watched more than 50,000 hours from January to June 2023. The company also announced plans to publish the report twice a year.[356][357] In its first report for the first six months of 2023, it reported that The Night Agent was the most watched show on globally in that period.[358] On January 23, 2024, Netflix announced a major agreement with professional wrestling promotion WWE, under which it will acquire the international rights to its live weekly program Raw beginning January 6, 2025; the rights will initially cover the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Latin America, and expand to other territories over time. Outside of the United States, it will also hold international rights to all three of WWE's main weekly programs (Raw, SmackDown, and NXT), premium live events, and documentaries among other content. The agreement was reported to be valued at $500 million per-year over ten years.[359][360][361] In February 2024, Netflix joined with Peter Morgan, creator of the Netflix series The Crown, to produce the play Patriots on Broadway. The venture is the first Broadway credit for the company but not its first stage project. It was actively involved as a producer of Stranger Things: The First Shadow in London. Both productions share a lead producer, Sonia Friedman.[362] In May 2024, the company hosted its second Netflix Is a Joke festival in Los Angeles. It streamed several specials from the festival live, including Katt Williams's Woke Folk and The Roast of Tom Brady, both of which ranked on Netflix's global top 10 the following two weeks.[363][364] That same month, Netflix announced that it would stream both National Football League Christmas games in 2024.[365] For 2025 and 2026, the streamer will have exclusive rights to at least one NFL Christmas game each year.[366] In June 2024, Netflix announced that it would develop new entertainment venues known as "Netflix House" at King of Prussia Mall in Pennsylvania and Galleria Dallas in Texas. The spaces will feature retail shops, restaurants, and other interactive experiences related to Netflix original content, building upon other "pop-up" initiatives to promote individual programs.[367] In November 2024, Netflix announced that it would discontinue further work on interactive specials and remove all but four of them from the platform, citing a desire to focus on "technological efforts in other areas".[368] On November 15, 2024, Netflix streamed a boxing event from AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas, featuring as co-main events an exhibition match between Jake Paul and Mike Tyson, and Katie Taylor vs. Amanda Serrano for the WBA, WBC, IBF, WBO, and The Ring lightweight titles. While afflicted by technical issues, Paul's promoter reported that the stream had a peak concurrent viewership of 65 million viewers, surpassing the 2023 ICC Men's Cricket World Cup final (which had a reported 57 million concurrent streams on Disney+ Hotstar) as the most live-streamed sporting event.[369][370] Netflix stated that the event had an "average minute audience" (AMA) of 108 million worldwide, and that the AMA of 47 million in the United States made the Taylor vs. Serrano bout the most-watched women's professional sporting event in U.S. history.[371] On December 20, 2024, FIFA announced that Netflix would be the exclusive U.S. broadcaster of the 2027 and 2031 FIFA Women's World Cup, in what was deemed the platform's most significant push into sports content.[372] On Christmas Day 2024, Netflix aired its first-ever NFL games: the Kansas City Chiefs versus the Pittsburgh Steelers, and the Baltimore Ravens versus the Houston Texans. The games both averaged over 30 million global viewers and became the two most-streamed NFL games in US history, while simultaneously creating Netflix’s most-watched Christmas Day ever in the US.[373] Availability and access Global availability Further information: International expansion of Netflix Countries where Netflix is available (as of March 2022): Available Unavailable (China,[374] North Korea, Russia,[375] and Syria.) Netflix is available in every country and territory except for China, North Korea, Syria, and Russia.[376] In January 2016, Netflix announced it would begin VPN blocking since it can be used to watch videos from a country where they are unavailable.[377] The result of the VPN block is that people can only watch videos available worldwide and other videos are hidden from search results.[378] Variety is present on Netflix. Hebrew and right-to-left interface orientation, which is a common localization strategy in many markets, are what define the Israeli user interface's localization, and in some regions, Netflix offers a more affordable mobile-only subscription.[379] Subscriptions Customers can subscribe to one of three plans; the difference in plans relates to video resolution, the number of simultaneous streams, and the number of devices to which content can be downloaded.[380] At the end of Q1 2022, Netflix estimated that 100 million households globally were sharing passwords to their account with others.[310] In March 2022, Netflix began to charge a fee for additional users in Chile, Peru, and Costa Rica to attempt to control account sharing.[308][309][310] On July 18, 2022, Netflix announced that it would test the account sharing feature in more countries, including Argentina, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras.[381] On October 17, Netflix launched Profile Transfer to help end account sharing.[382] On July 13, 2022, Netflix announced plans to launch an advertising-supported subscription option.[383] Netflix's planned advertising tier would not allow subscribers to download content like the existing ad-free platform.[384] On July 20, 2022, it was announced that the advertising-supported tier would be coming to Netflix in 2023 but it would not feature the full library of content.[385] In October, the launch date was announced as November 3, 2022, and was launched in 12 countries: United States, Canada, Mexico, Brazil, United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Australia, Japan and South Korea.[386][387][388] The ad-supported plan was called "Basic with Ads" and it cost $6.99 per month in the United States at launch.[389] On February 24, 2023, Netflix cut subscription prices in more than 30 countries around the world to attract more subscribers from those countries. Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, the Philippines, Croatia, Venezuela, Kenya, and Iran are on the list of countries where the cost for a subscription will be reduced.[390] In the same month stronger anti-password-sharing rules were expanded to Canada, New Zealand, Portugal, and Spain.[391] In May 2023, these measures were further expanded to United States and Brazil subscribers.[392][393][394] In July 2023, Netflix added 5.9 million subscribers for the second quarter of the year for a total of 238.39 million subscribers overall. The United States and Canada accounted for 1.2 million subscribers which was the largest regional quarterly gain since 2021.[7][395] Netflix announced in February that it was going to enforce stricter regulations for password sharing. In May 2023, Netflix began cracking down on password-sharing in the US, UK, and Australia. Under these new rules, multiple people can use and share one account, but they have to be under the same household. Netflix defines a household as people who live in the same location as the owner of the account. Users are asked to set a primary location based on the device's IP address.[396] Netflix reported 8.05 million new subscribers in Q2 2024, up from 5.9 million subscribers added in Q2 2023.[397][398] In July 2024, Netflix started phasing out its cheapest subscription plan for users in France and the US, a year after the plan was removed for Canada and the UK. Members in these countries have the option to sign up for either the standard ad-free plan or the ad plan.[399][400] Device support Netflix can be accessed via a web browser, while Netflix apps are available on various platforms, including Blu-ray players, tablet computers, mobile phones, smart TVs, digital media players, and video game consoles. Currently supported game consoles include: Microsoft Xbox 360,[401] Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S Sony PlayStation 3,[402] PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5 A Sharp Aquos remote control with a Netflix button Several older devices no longer support Netflix. For home gaming consoles, this includes the PlayStation 2,[403] PlayStation TV, Wii[404] and Wii U.[405] For handheld gaming consoles, this includes the Nintendo 3DS family of systems and the PlayStation Vita.[406] The second and third generation Apple TV previously supported Netflix with an ad-free plan, but the app was automatically removed on these devices on July 31, 2024.[407] In addition, a growing number of multichannel television providers, including cable television and IPTV services, have added Netflix apps accessible within their own set-top boxes, sometimes with the ability for its content (along with those of other online video services) to be presented within a unified search interface alongside linear television programming as an "all-in-one" solution.[408][409][410][411] The maximum video resolution supported on computers is dependent on the DRM systems available on a particular operating system and web browser.[412] Operating System Web Browser DRM system Maximum allowed video resolution Microsoft Windows 7 or later MacOS 10.11 or later Linux (dependent on distribution variant) Google Chrome, Firefox, Opera Widevine 720p (with Widevine L1) Microsoft Windows 10 or later Microsoft Edge PlayReady 4K (device must fulfill hardware requirements)[413] MacOS 10.11 through MacOS 10.15 Apple Safari FairPlay 1080p MacOS 11 or later Apple Safari FairPlay 4K ChromeOS Google Chrome Widevine 1080p (with Widevine L1) Android mobile app Widevine 480p (devices with Widevine L3 only) 1080p (devices with Widevine L1 certification) [414] iOS mobile app FairPlay 1080p[415] Content Original programming Netflix Original Movies Further information on Netflix original programming: Lists of Netflix original television series (both current, and ended), original films, and stand-up comedy specials Further information on Netflix international offerings: Lists of Netflix exclusive international distribution programming "Netflix Originals" are content that is produced, co-produced, or distributed exclusively by Netflix. Netflix funds its original shows differently than other TV networks when they sign a project, providing the money upfront and immediately ordering two seasons of most series.[416] It keeps licensing rights, which normally give production companies future revenue opportunities from syndication, merchandising, etc.[159][417] Over the years, Netflix output ballooned to a level unmatched by any television network or streaming service. According to Variety Insight, Netflix produced a total of 240 new original shows and movies in 2018, then climbed to 371 in 2019, a figure "greater than the number of original series that the entire U.S. TV industry released in 2005."[418] The Netflix budget allocated to production increased annually, reaching $13.6 billion in 2021 and projected to hit $18.9 billion by 2025, a figure that once again overshadowed any of its competitors.[419] As of August 2022, original productions made up 50% of Netflix's overall library in the United States.[420] Film and television deals Netflix has exclusive pay TV deals with several studios. The deals give Netflix exclusive streaming rights while adhering to the structures of traditional pay TV terms. Distributors that have licensed content to Netflix include Warner Bros., Universal Pictures, Sony Pictures Entertainment and previously The Walt Disney Studios. Netflix also holds current and back-catalog rights to television programs distributed by Walt Disney Television, DreamWorks Classics, Kino International, PBS, Warner Bros. Television and Paramount Global Content Distribution, along with titles from other companies such as ABS-CBN Studios,[421] GMA Pictures,[422] Cignal Entertainment, MQ Studios, Regal Entertainment, Viva Films, MNC Media, Screenplay Films, Soraya Intercine Films, Falcon Pictures [id], MD Pictures [id], Rapi Films, Starvision Plus [id], CJ ENM, JTBC, Kakao Entertainment, TBS, TV Asahi, Fuji TV, Mediacorp, Primeworks Studios, GMM Grammy, Public Television Service, Gala Television, ITV Studios, Hasbro Entertainment and StudioCanal. Formerly, the streaming service also held rights to select television programs distributed by NBCUniversal Television Distribution, Sony Pictures Television and 20th Century Fox Television. Netflix negotiated to distribute animated films from Universal that HBO declined to acquire, such as The Lorax, ParaNorman, and Minions.[423] Netflix holds exclusive streaming rights to the film library of Studio Ghibli (except Grave of the Fireflies) worldwide except in the U.S. and Japan as part of an agreement signed with Ghibli's international sales holder Wild Bunch in 2020.[424] Netflix Games In July 2021, Netflix hired Mike Verdu, a former executive from Electronic Arts and Facebook, as vice president of game development, along with plans to add video games by 2022.[425] Netflix announced plans to release mobile games that would be included in subscribers' service plans.[426] Trial offerings were first launched for Netflix users in Poland in August 2021, offering premium mobile games based on Stranger Things including Stranger Things 3: The Game, for free to subscribers through the Netflix mobile app.[427] Netflix officially launched mobile games on November 2, 2021, for Android users around the world. Through the app, subscribers had free access to five games, including two previously made Stranger Things titles. Netflix intends to add more games to this service over time.[428] On November 9, the collection launched for iOS.[429] Verdu said in October 2022 that besides continuing to expand their portfolio of games, they were also interested in cloud gaming options.[430] To support the games effort, Netflix began acquiring and forming a number of studios. The company acquired Night School Studio, an independent video game developer, in September 2021.[431] Netflix announced plans to acquire Next Games in March 2022 for €65 million as part of Netflix's expansions into gaming. Next Games had developed the mobile title Stranger Things: Puzzle Tales as well as two The Walking Dead mobile games.[432] Later in the month, Netflix also acquired the Texas-based mobile game developer, Boss Fight Entertainment, for an undisclosed sum.[297] Netflix opened a mobile game studio in Helsinki, Finland in September 2022,[433] and a new studio, their fifth overall, in southern California in October 2022,[430] alongside the acquisition of Spry Fox in Seattle.[434] In June 2024, Verdu was moved into a new role focusing on "innovation in game development."[435] The next month, Netflix hired Alain Tascan, vice president of game development at Epic Games, to head up Netflix Games.[436] As of July 2024, Netflix has over 80 games in development, releasing at least one game each month to attract fans.[437] The company shut down its Southern California "Team Blue" AAA gaming studio in October 2024, leading to the departure of developers like Overwatch producer Chacko Sonny, Halo veteran Joseph Staten and God of War art director Rafael Grassetti.[438] Netflix indicated that it maintains a commitment to grow its gaming business despite the changes.[439][440] In late October, Netflix announced several games based on hit series including Netflix Stories: Outer Banks, Netflix Stories: A Perfect Couple, Netflix Stories: A Virgin River Christmas, and The Ultimatum: Choices, as well as a new daily word game in partnership with TED Talks, TED Tumblewords.[441][442] Technology Content delivery Netflix freely peers with Internet service providers (ISPs) directly and at common Internet exchange points. In June 2012, a custom content delivery network, Open Connect, was announced.[443] For larger ISPs with over 100,000 subscribers, Netflix offers free Netflix Open Connect computer appliances that cache their content within the ISPs' data centers or networks to further reduce Internet transit costs.[444][445] By August 2016, Netflix closed its last physical data center, but continued to develop its Open Connect technology.[446] A 2016 study at the University of London detected 233 individual Open Connect locations on over six continents, with the largest amount of traffic in the US, followed by Mexico.[447][448] As of July 2017, Netflix series and movies accounted for more than a third of all prime-time download Internet traffic in North America.[449] API On October 1, 2008, Netflix offered access to its service via a public application programming interface (API).[450] It allowed access to data for all Netflix titles, and allows users to manage their movie queues. The API was free and allowed commercial use.[451] In June 2012, Netflix began to restrict the availability of its public API.[452] Netflix instead focused on a small number of known partners using private interfaces, since most traffic came from those private interfaces.[453] In November 2014, Netflix retired the public API.[454] Netflix then partnered with the developers of eight services deemed the most valuable, including Instant Watcher, Fanhattan, Yidio and Nextguide.[455] Recommendations and thumbnails Netflix presents viewers with recommendations based on interactions with the service, such as previous viewing history and ratings of viewed content. These are often grouped into genres and formats, or feature the platform's highest-rated content. Each title is presented with a thumbnail. Before around 2015, these were the same key art for everyone, but since then has been customized. Netflix may select a specific key art for a thumbnail based on viewing history,[456] such as an actor or scene type based on genre preferences.[457] Some thumbnails are generated from video stills.[458] The Netflix recommendation system is a vital part of the streaming platform's success, enabling personalized content suggestions for hundreds of millions of subscribers worldwide.[459] Using advanced machine learning algorithms, Netflix analyzes user interactions, including viewing history, searches, and ratings, to deliver personalized recommendations for movies and TV shows. The recommendation system considers individual user preferences, similarities with other users with comparable tastes, specific title attributes (genre, release year, etc.), device usage patterns, and viewing time. As users interact with the platform and provide feedback with their viewing habits, the recommendation system is able to adapt and refine its suggestions over time. Netflix uses a two-tiered ranking system, using the presentation of titles on the homepage for easy navigation to maximize user engagement. This is done by organizing content into rows and ranking the titles within each row based on how much the user would be interested in it.[459] Netflix also uses A/B testing to determine what causes the biggest interest and engagement related to options concerning movie suggestions and how titles are organized. Tags like "bittersweet", "sitcom", or "intimate" are assigned to each title by Netflix employees.[460] Netflix also uses the tags to create recommendation micro-genres like "Goofy TV Shows" or "Girls Night In".[460] Awards Further information: List of accolades received by Netflix On July 18, 2013, Netflix earned the first Primetime Emmy Awards nominations for original streaming programs at the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards. Three of its series, Arrested Development, Hemlock Grove and House of Cards, earned a combined 14 nominations (nine for House of Cards, three for Arrested Development and two for Hemlock Grove).[461] The House of Cards episode "Chapter 1" received four nominations for both the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards and 65th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, becoming the first episode of a streaming television series to receive a major Primetime Emmy Award nomination. With its win for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single-Camera Series, "Chapter 1" became the first episode from a streaming service to be awarded an Emmy.[461][462][463] David Fincher's win for Directing for a Drama Series for House of Cards made the episode the first from a streaming service to win a Primetime Emmy.[464] On November 6, 2013, Netflix earned its first Grammy nomination when You've Got Time by Regina Spektor—the main title theme song for Orange Is the New Black—was nominated for Best Song Written for Visual Media.[465] On December 12, 2013, the network earned six nominations for Golden Globe Awards, including four for House of Cards.[466] Among those nominations was Wright for Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama for her portrayal of Claire Underwood, which she won. With the accolade, Wright became the first actress to win a Golden Globe for a streaming television series. It also marked Netflix's first major acting award.[467][468][469] House of Cards and Orange is the New Black also won Peabody Awards in 2013.[470] On January 16, 2014, Netflix became the first streaming service to earn an Academy Award nomination when The Square was nominated for Best Documentary Feature.[471] On July 10, 2014, Netflix received 31 Emmy nominations. Among other nominations, House of Cards received nominations for Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Directing in a Drama Series and Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series. Kevin Spacey and Robin Wright were nominated for Outstanding Lead Actor and Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series. Orange is the New Black was nominated in the comedy categories, earning nominations for Outstanding Comedy Series, Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series and Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series. Taylor Schilling, Kate Mulgrew, and Uzo Aduba were respectively nominated for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series, Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series and Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series (the latter was for Aduba's recurring role in season one, as she was promoted to series regular for the show's second season).[472] Netflix got the largest share of 2016 Emmy Award nominations, with 16 major nominations. However, streaming shows only got 24 nominations out of a total of 139, falling significantly behind cable. The 16 Netflix nominees were: House of Cards with Kevin Spacey, A Very Murray Christmas with Bill Murray, Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt, Master of None, and Bloodline.[473] Stranger Things received 19 nominations at the 2017 Primetime Emmy Awards, while The Crown received 13 nominations.[474] In December 2017, Netflix was awarded PETA's Company of the Year for promoting animal rights movies and documentaries like Forks Over Knives and What the Health.[475][476] At the 90th Academy Awards, held on March 4, 2018, the film Icarus, distributed by Netflix, won its first Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature Film. During his remarks backstage, director and writer Bryan Fogel remarked that Netflix had "single-handedly changed the documentary world." Icarus had its premiere at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival and was bought by Netflix for $5 million, one of the biggest deals ever for a non-fiction film.[477] Netflix became the network whose programs received more nomination at the 2018 Primetime and Creative Arts Emmy Awards with 112 nominations, therefore breaking HBO's 17-years record as a network whose programs received more nomination at the Emmys, which received 108 nominations.[478][479] On January 22, 2019, films distributed by Netflix scored 15 nominations for the 91st Academy Awards, including Academy Award for Best Picture for Alfonso Cuarón's Roma, which was nominated for 10 awards.[480] The 15 nominations equal the total nominations films distributed by Netflix had received in previous years. In 2020, Netflix received 20 TV nominations and films distributed by Netflix also got 22 film nominations at the 78th Golden Globe Awards. It secured three out of the five nominations for best drama TV series for The Crown, Ozark and Ratched and four of the five nominations for best actress in a TV series: Olivia Colman, Emma Corrin, Laura Linney and Sarah Paulson.[481][482] In 2020, Netflix earned 24 Academy Award nominations, marking the first time a streaming service led all studios.[483] Films and programs distributed by Netflix received 30 nominations at the 2021 Screen Actors Guild Awards, more than any other distribution company, where their distributed films and programs won seven awards including best motion picture for The Trial of the Chicago 7 and best TV drama for The Crown.[484][485] Netflix also received the most nominations of any studio at the 93rd Academy Awards—35 total nominations with 7 award wins.[486][487] In February 2022, The Power of the Dog, a gritty western distributed by Netflix and directed by Jane Campion, received 12 nominations, including Best Picture, for the 94th annual Academy Awards. Films distributed by the streamer received a total of 72 nominations.[488] Campion became the third female to receive the Best Director award, winning her second Oscar for The Power of the Dog.[489] At the 50th International Emmy Awards, Netflix original Sex Education won Best Comedy Series.[490] Later that year, Netflix received 26 Emmy Awards including six for Squid Game. The Squid Game wins for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series and Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series were the first-ever for a non-English language series in those categories.[491] In March 2023, Netflix won six Academy Awards including four for All Quiet on the Western Front which was the most awarded Netflix film in its history. Guillermo del Toro's Pinocchio was the first streaming film to named Best Animated Feature and The Elephant Whisperers was the first Indian-produced film to receive Best Documentary Short Film.[492] Netflix received 103 Emmy nominations including 13 each for the limited series Beef and Dahmer – Monster: The Jeffrey Dahmer Story.[493] In July 2024, Netflix received 107 Emmy nominations, which was the most of any network.[494] Criticism Main article: Criticism of Netflix In 2024, Netflix discontinued its cheapest ad-free plan. Users who were on the plan would have to pay extra for the next cheapest ad-free plan. Netflix has been subject to criticism from various groups and individuals as its popularity and market reach increased in the 2010s. Customers have complained about price increases in Netflix offerings dating back to the company's decision to separate its DVD rental and streaming services, which was quickly reversed. As Netflix increased its streaming output, it has faced calls to limit accessibility to graphic violence and include viewer advisories for issues such as sensationalism and promotion of pseudoscience. Netflix's content has also been criticized by disability rights movement advocates for lack of closed captioning quality.[495] Some media organizations and competitors have criticized Netflix for selectively releasing ratings and viewer numbers of its original programming. The company has made claims boasting about viewership records without providing data to substantiate its successes or using problematic estimation methods.[496] In March 2020, some government agencies called for Netflix and other streamers to limit services due to increased broadband and energy consumption as use of the platform increased. In response, the company announced it would reduce bit rate across all streams in Europe, thus decreasing Netflix traffic on European networks by around 25 percent. These same steps were later taken in India.[497] In May 2022, Netflix's shareholder Imperium Irrevocable Trust filed a lawsuit against the company for violating the U.S. securities laws.[498] In January 2024, a federal judge dismissed the suit, stating that shareholders failed to provide instances of Netflix lying about subscriber growth.[499] In May 2023, Netflix officially banned the use of password sharing between individuals of different households, meaning sharing an account was only available to those living in the same house.[500][501] See also Film portal icon Television portal Companies portal San Francisco Bay Area portal List of streaming media services References "Netflix is now available in Hindi". Netflix (Press release). August 9, 2020. Archived from the original on March 5, 2024. Retrieved August 21, 2020. "APA KABAR INDONESIA? NETFLIX CAN NOW SPEAK BAHASA INDONESIA". Netflix (Press release). October 18, 2018. Archived from the original on April 11, 2023. 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Retrieved February 9, 2022. Pulver, Andrew (March 27, 2022). "Jane Campion wins best director Oscar for The Power of the Dog". The Guardian. "International Emmys 2022: The Complete Winners List". Variety. November 22, 2022. Retrieved November 23, 2022. Kase Wickman (September 13, 2022). "Emmys 2022 Winners: See the Full List Here". Variety Fair. Sarah Whitten; Mike Calia (March 13, 2023). "Oscar 2023: 'Everything Everywhere All at Once' wins best picture, six other awards". CNBC. Jordan Moreau; Michael Schneider (July 12, 2023). "Emmys 2023: The Complete Nominations List". Variety. Littleton, Cynthia (July 17, 2024). "Emmy Nominations 2024 Scorecard: Netflix on Top, FX Makes History and Apple TV+ Packs a Punch". Variety. Retrieved August 8, 2024. Cooper, Kelly-Leigh (June 29, 2018). "Queer Eye host backs Netflix subtitle change". BBC News. Retrieved July 8, 2019. "Netflix execs say they'll finally start releasing viewership data soon". The Verge. April 17, 2019. Retrieved June 2, 2019. "Netflix finds way to maintain streaming quality in India despite heavy traffic". Livemint. March 24, 2020. Retrieved May 17, 2023. Cho, Winston (May 4, 2022). "Netflix Hit With Shareholder Lawsuit After Disclosing Subscriber Loss". The Hollywood Reporter. Cho, Winston (January 8, 2024). "Netflix Staves Off Shareholder Lawsuit Over Subscriber Losses Tied to Account-Sharing Disclosures". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved July 29, 2024. Wilson, Hamish HectorContributions from Mark; updated, Chris Rowlands last (February 11, 2023). "Netflix password-sharing: how the crackdown works and what it costs". TechRadar. Retrieved August 21, 2024. Tom Power (May 24, 2023). "Netflix's global password crackdown is off to a terrible start". TechRadar. Retrieved August 21, 2024. Further reading Hastings, Reed (2020). No Rules Rules: Netflix and the Culture of Reinvention. Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1-984877-86-4. McDonald, Kevin; Smith-Rowsey, Daniel (2016). 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• Condition: Used
• Condition: In Good Condition for its age over 125 years old
• Royal: Victoria (1837-1901)
• To Commemorate: Queen Victoria
• Type: Coin
• Royalty: UK Royalty
• Year: 1899
• Signed: No
• Manufacturer: British Royal Mint
• Theme: Royalty
• Country: Great Britian
• Features: Antique
• Country/Region of Manufacture: United Kingdom
• Vintage: Yes

• 1890 VICTORIAN CROWN 0.925 Solid Silver Antique Coin Old Vintage Sterling Queen

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• 1818 Solid 0.925 Silver Antique Crown Coin Vintage Over 200 Years Old Royal Mint

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• 1887 🇬🇧Golden Jubilee Queen Victoria Historical Token 5P

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• 1844 QUEEN VICTORIA CROWN Solid Silver Young Head Antique Coin Royal Mint Brooch

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• 1893 Solid Silver Antique Queen Victoria Crown Coin Vintage 0.925 Sterling Old

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• 1895 VICTORIAN CROWN Solid Silver Antique Coin Old Vintage Queen Royal Family UK

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• 1893 Solid Silver Antique Queen Victoria Crown Coin Vintage 0.925 Sterling Old

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• Antique Old Queen Victoria 1887 Silver Enamel Florin Coin Ladies Brooch

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• Vintage / Antique Assortment of Royal Related Memorabilia Victoria - Elizabeth

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• STUNNING Condition Antique Enamelled Silver 1887 QUEEN VICTORIA - COIN BROOCH

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• Vintage Antique Queen Victoria Royal Commemorative Diamond Jubilee Plate 1897

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• 1887 Victoria Jubilee half crown brooch . Delightful gift . Free UK postage .

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• LOVELY Antique Enamel Silver 1887 QUEEN VICTORIA - COIN BROOCH 4/- DOUBLE FLORIN

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• 1887 Wales 🏴󠁧󠁢󠁷󠁬󠁳󠁿 Cymru Golden Jubilee Queen Victoria Historical Token

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